Adverse Drug Reactions to Systemic Antifungals

Drug Safety - Tập 7 - Trang 323-363 - 2012
John R. Perfect1, Myra H. Lindsay1, Richard H. Drew1
1Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, USA

Tóm tắt

Systemic administration of antifungal agents for invasive mycoses has dramatically increased over the past 10 years in many fields of medicine. The increase has been due both to an increasing immune compromised population and to potent antibacterial agents which allow these fungi to invade tissue. It is apparent that our understanding of the use of both the old and new antifungal agents has significantly increased in the last few years. In this review, we attempt to document our extensive knowledge of the adverse effects of the polyenes, flucytosine, griseofulvin and azoles when given systemically for treatment. Interwoven in this documentation of the adverse reactions to these agents is the attempt to help clinicians potentially avoid some of these adverse effects and if they do occur, to be able to identify and successfully manage them.

Tài liệu tham khảo

Abadie-Kemmerly S, Pankey GA, Dalvisio JR. Failure of ketoconazole treatment of blastomyces dermatididis due to the interaction of isoniazid and rifampin. Annals of Internal Medicine 109: 844–845, 1988 Agarwal A, Sakhuja V, Chugh KS. Fluconazole-induced thrombocytopenia. Annals of Internal Medicine 113: 899, 1990 Alexander S. Lupus erythematosus in two patients after griseofulvin treatment of Trichophyton rubrum. British Journal of Dermatology 74: 72–74, 1962 Anderson WA, Torre D. Griseofulvin and lupus erythematosus. Journal of the Medical Society of New Jersey 63: 161–162, 1966 Andreoli TE. On the anatomy of amphotericin B-cholesterol pores in lipid bilayer membranes. Kidney International 4: 337–345, 1973 Antoniskis D, Larsen RA. Acute, rapidly progressive renal failure with simultaneous use of amphotericin B and pentamidine. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 34: 470–472, 1990 Apseloff G, Hilligoss DM, Gardner MJ. Induction of fluconazole metab by rifampin: In vivo study in humans. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 31: 358–361, 1991 Back DJ, Stevenson P, Tjia JF. Comparative effects of two antimycotic agents, ketoconazole and terbinafine on the metabolism of tolbutamide, ethinylestradiol, cyclosporin and ethoxycoumarin by human liver microsomes in vitro. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 28: 166–170, 1989 Back TJ, Tjia JF. Comparative effects of the antimycotic drugs ketoconazole, fluconazole, itraconazole and terbinafine on the metabolism of cyclosporin by human liver microsomes. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 32: 624–626, 1991 Bagnarello AG, Lewis LA, McHenry MC. Unusual serum lipoprotein abnormality induced by the vehicle of miconazole. New England Journal of Medicine 296: 497–499, 1977 Bandilla KK. Der Einfluss von medicamenten auf serologischimmunologische tests. Tagliche Praxis 15: 521–523, 1974 Barr RJ, Fujita WH, Graham JH. Eruptive xanthomas associated with intravenous miconazole therapy. Archives of Dermatology 114: 1544–1545, 1978 Barton CH, Pahl M, Vaziri ND, Cesario T. Renal magnesium wasting associated with amphotericin B therapy. American Journal of Medicine 77: 471–474, 1984 Bell RW, Ritchey JP. Subconjunctival nodules after amphotericin B injection. Archives of Ophthalmology 90: 402–404, 1973 Bennett JE. Chemotherapy of systemic mycoses. New England Journal of Medicine 290: 30–32, 1974 Bennett JE. Flucytosine. Annals of Internal Medicine 86: 319, 1977 Bennett JE, Dismukes W, Duma J. A comparison of amphotericin B alone and combined with flucytosine in the treatment of cryptococcal meningitis. New England Journal of Medicine 301: 126–131, 1979 Benson GD, Anderson PK, Combes B. Prolonged jaundice following ketoconazole-induced hepatic injury. Digestive Diseases and Sciences 33: 240–246, 1988 Bercoff E, Bernuau J, Degott C. Ketoconazole-induced fulminant hepatitis. Gut 26: 636–638, 1985 Berman A, Franklin RL. Precipitation of acute intermittent porphyria by griseofulvin therapy. Journal of the American Medical Association 192: 1005–1007, 1965 Best TR, Jenkins JK, Murphy FY. Persistent adrenal insufficiency secondary to low-dose ketoconazole therapy. American Journal of Medicine 82: 676–680, 1987 Birnbaum JE. Pharmacology of the allylamines. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 23: 782–785, 1990 Blank H, Smith JG, Roth FJ, Zaias N. Griseofulvin for the systemic treatment of dermatomycoses. Journal of the American Medical Association 171: 2168–2173, 1959 Blank H. Treatment of dermatomycoses with griseofulvin. Archives of Dermatology 118: 835–836, 1982 Blank H, Roth FJ. Treatment of dermatomycoses with orally administered griseofulvin. Archives of Dermatology 79: 259–266, 1959 Block ER, Bennett JE. Stability of amphotericin B in infusion bottles. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 4: 648–649, 1973 Blomley M, Teare EL, de Beider A, Thway Y, Weston M. Itraconazole and antituberculosis drugs (letter). Lancet 336: 1255, 1990 Blum RA, D’Andrea DT, Florentino BM. Increased gastric pH and the bioavailability of fluconazole and ketoconazole. Annals of Internal Medicine 114: 755–757, 1991a Blum RA, Wilton JH, Hilligoss DM. Effect of fluconazole on the disposition of phenytoin. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 49: 420–425, 1991b Bodey GP. Topical and systemic antifungal agents. Medical Clinics of North America 72: 637–659, 1988 Borelli D. A clinical trial of itraconazole in the treatment of deep mycoses and leishmaniasis. Reviews of Infectious Diseases 9: S57–S63, 1987 Boudghene-Stambouli O, Mierad-Boudia A. Fixed drug eruption induced by griseofulvin. Dermatologica 179: 92–93, 1989 Bow EJ, Schroeder ML, Louie TJ. Pulmonary complications in patients receiving granulocyte transfusions and amphotericin B. Canadian Medical Association Journal 130: 593, 1984 Bozette SA, Larsen RA, Chiu J. A placebo-controlled trial of maintenance therapy with fluconazole after treatment of cryptococcal meningitis in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. New England Journal of Medicine 324: 580–584, 1991 Brajtburg J, Elberg S, Kobayashi GS, Medoff G. Inhibition of amphotericin B (Fungizone) toxicity to cells by egg lecithin-glycocholic acid mixed micelles. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 34: 2415–2416, 1990 Branch RA, Jackson EK, Jacqz E, Stein R, Ray WA, et al. Amphotericin B nephrotoxicity in humans decreased by sodium supplements with coadministration of ticarcillin or intravenous saline. Klinische Wochenschrift 65: 500–506, 1987 Branch RA. Prevention of amphotericin B-induced renal impairment: a review on the use of sodium supplementation. Archives of Internal Medicine 148: 2389–2394, 1988 Brass C, Galgiani JN, Blaschke TF. Disposition of ketoconazole, an oral antifungal, in humans. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 27: 151–158, 1982 Bristol-Myers Squibb. Mycostatin® package insert, Princeton, New Jersey, 1985 Brock JC, Drew RH, Pickard WW. Amphotericin B infused as full dose vs stepwise titration: a randomized, double-blind study (abstract). 29th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, Houston, Texas, September 17-20, 1989 Brooks DP, Mitchell MP, Short BG, Rufolo RR Jr, Nichols AJ. Attenuation of amphotericin B nephrotoxicity in the dog by the fenoldopam prodrug, SK&F R-105058. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 257: 1243–1247, 1991 Bullock WE, Luke RG, Nuttal CE. Can mannitol reduce amphotericin B nephrotoxicity? Double-blind study and description of a new vascular lesion in kidneys. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 10: 555–563, 1976 Burgess JL, Birchall R. Nephrotoxicity of amphotericin B, with emphasis on changes in tubular function. American Journal of Medicine 53: 77–84, 1972 Burks LC, Aisner J, Fortner CL, Wiernik PH. Meperidine for the treatment of shaking chills and fever. Archives of Internal Medicine 140: 483–484, 1980 Butler WT, Bennett JE, Ailing DW, Wertlake PT, Utz JP, et al. Nephrotoxicity of amphotericin B: early and late effects in 81 patients. Annals of Internal Medicine 61: 175–187, 1964 Canafax DM, Graves NM, Hilligoss DM. Interaction between cyclosporine and fluconazole in renal allograft recipients. Transplantation 51: 1014–1018, 1991 Carlson JA, Mann HJ, Canafax DM. Effect of pH on disintegration and dissolution of ketoconazole tablets. American Journal of Hospital Pharmacy 40: 1334–1336, 1983 Cauwenbergh G, De Doncker P, Stoops K. Itraconazole in the treatment of human mycoses: review of three years of clinical experience. Reviews of Infectious Diseases 9: S146–S152, 1987 Cauwenbergh G, Legendre R, Blatchford N. Itraconazole, a novel oral antifungal: its efficacy and safety profile. 8th Regional Conference of Dermatology, Bali, June 16-20, 1988 Chan CSP, Tuazon CU, Lessin LS. Amphotericin-B-induced thrombocytopenia. Annals of Internal Medicine 96: 332–333, 1982 Chang TW. Cold urticaria and photosensitivity with griseofulvin. Journal of the American Medical Association 193: 848–850, 1965 Charak BS, Iyer RS, Rajoor BG. Amphotericin B-related thrombocytopenia. A report of two cases. Journal of Association of Physicians of India 38: 235–236, 1990 Charles BG, Ravenscroft PJ, Rigby RJ. The ketoconazole-cyclosporin interaction in an elderly renal transplant recipient. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Medicine 19: 292–293, 1989 Chia JKS, Pollack M. Amphotericin B induces tumor necrosis factor production by murine macrophages. Journal of Infectious Diseases 159: 113–116, 1989 Chuck SL, Sande MA. Infections with Cryptococcus neoformans in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. New England Journal of Medicine 321: 794–799, 1989 Clayton YM. In vitro activity of terbinafine. Clinical and Experimental Dermatology 14: 101–103, 1989 Cleary JD, Chapman SW, Nolan RL. Pharmacologic modulation of interleukin-1 expression by amphotericin B-stimulated human mononuclear cells. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 36: 977–981, 1992 Clements H, Peacock JE. Amphotericin B revisited: reassessment of toxicity. American Journal of Medicine 88: 22N–27N, 1990 Cohen I. Absence of congenital infection and teratogenesis in three children born to mothers with blastomycosis and treated with amphotericin B during pregnancy. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 6: 76–77, 1987 Cohen J. Antifungal chemotherapy. Lancet 2: 532–536, 1982 Cohen J. Treatment of systemic yeast infection with fluconazole. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 23: 294–295, 1989 Coker RJ, Tomlinson DR, Parkin J. Interaction between fluconazole and rifampin. British Medical Journal 301: 818, 1990 Colagiovanni SM, Meares EM, Sant GR. Spurious azotemia associated with 5-fluorocytosine therapy. Urology 36: 283–285, 1990 Cole GW, Stricklin G. A comparison of a new oral antifungal, terbinafine, with griseofulvin as therapy for tinea corporis. Archives of Dermatology 125: 1537–1539, 1989 Collignon P, Hurley B, Mitchell D. Interaction of fluconazole with cyclosporin. Lancet 1: 1262, 1989 Colquhoun MC, Daly M, Stewart P. Interaction between warfarin and miconazole oral gel. Lancet 1: 685–686, 1987 Conti DJ, Tolkoff-Rubin NE, Baker Jr GP. Successful treatment of invasive fungal infections with fluconazole in organ transplant recipients. Transplantation 48: 692–695, 1989 Coskey RJ. Contact dermatitis due to nystatin. Archives of Dermatology 103: 228, 1971 Craven PC, Gremillion DH. Risk factors for ventricular fibrillation during rapid amphotericin B infusion. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 27: 868–871, 1985 Cruz J, Boardman L, Powell B. Effects of amiloride on amphotericin B-induced potassium wasting Abstract no. 5. 21st Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, Chicago, September 29-October 2, 1991 Damanhouri Z, Gumbleton M, Nicholls PJ. In-vivo effects of itraconazole on hepatic mixed-function oxidase. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 21: 187–194, 1988 Dana BW, Durie BGM, White RF, Huestis DW. Concomitant administration of granulocyte transfusions and amphotericin B in neutropenic patients: absence of significant pulmonary toxicity. Blood 57: 90–94, 1981 Daneshmend TK, Warnock DW. Clinical pharmacokinetics of systemic antifungal drugs. Clinical Pharmacokinetics 8: 17–42, 1983 Davies RR. Griseofulvin. In Speller DCE (Ed). Antifungal Chemotherapy, pp. 149–182, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1980 de Groot AC, Conemans JM. Nystatin allergy. Petrolatum is not the optimal vehicle for patch testing. Dermatologie Clinics 8: 153–155, 1990 DeCoster R, Beerens D, Haelterman C. Effects of itraconazole on the pituitary-testicular-adrenal axis: an overview of preclinical and clinical studies. In Fromtling RA (Ed). Recent trends in the discovery, development and evaluation of antifungal agents, pp. 251–261, JR Prous Science Publishers, Barcelona, 1987 Del Palacio HA, Lopez GS, Gonzalez LF. A comparative double-blind study of terbinafine (Lamisil) and griseofulvin in tinea corporis and tinea cruris. Clinical and Experimental Dermatology 15: 210–216, 1990 Denning DW, Follansbee SE, Scolaro M. Pulmonary aspergillosis in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. New England Journal of Medicine 324: 654–662, 1991 Deresinski SC, Lilly RB, Levine HB. Treatment of fungal meningitis with miconazole. Archives of Internal Medicine 137: 1180–1185, 1977 Deresinski SC, Stevens DA. Bone and joint coccidioidomycosis treated with miconazole. American Reviews of Respiratory Disease 120: 1107, 1979 De Wit S, Goosens H, Weerts D. Comparison of fluconazole and ketoconazole for oropharyngeal candidiasis in AIDS. Lancet 1: 746–748, 1989 Diamond RD, Bennett JE. A subcutaneous reservoir for intrathe-cal therapy of fungal meningitis. New England Journal of Medicine 288: 186–188, 1973 Diasio RB, Lakings DE, Bennett JE. Evidence for conversion of 5-fluorocytosine to 5-fluorouracil in humans: possible factor in 5-fluorocytosine clinical toxicity. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 14: 903–908, 1978 Dieperink H, Moller J. Ketoconazole and cyclosporin. Lancet 2: 1217, 1982 Doble N, Hykin P, Shaw R. Pulmonary mycobacterium tuberculosis in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. British Medical Journal 291: 849–850, 1985 Doble N, Shaw R, Rowland-Hill C. Pharmacokinetic study of the interaction between rifampin and ketoconazole. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 21: 633–635, 1988 Douglas JB, Healy JK. Nephrotoxic effects of amphotericin B, including renal tubular acidosis. American Journal of Medicine 46: 154–162, 1969 Duarte PA, Chow CC, Simmons F. Fatal hepatitis associated with ketoconazole therapy. Archives of Internal Medicine 44: 1069–1070, 1984 Dukes CS, Perfect JR. Amphotericin B-induced malignant hypertensive episodes. J. Infectious Diseases 161: 588, 1990 Dupont B, Drouhet E. Early experience with itraconazole in vitro and in patients: pharmacokinetic studies and clinical results. Reviews of Infectious Diseases 9: 571–576, 1987 Editorial. Drugs for treatment of systemic fungal infections. Medical Letter on Drugs and Therapeutics 28: 41-44, 1986 Effendy I, Krause W. In vivo effects of terbinafine and ketoconazole on testosterone plasma levels in healthy males. Dermatologica 178: 103–106, 1989 Ehninger G, Jaschonek K, Schuler U. Interaction of fluconazole with cyclosporin. Lancet 2: 104, 1989 Eisenberg ES, Leviton I, Soeiro R. Fungal peritonitis in patients receiving peritoneal dialysis: experience with 11 patients and review of the literature. Reviews of Infectious Diseases 8: 309–321, 1986 Ellis ME, Al-Hokail AA, Clink HM. A study of rapid vs slow infusion rates on amphotericin B on toxicity, tolerance and efficacy. 31st Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, Chicago, II., 29 Sep — 2 Oct, 1991. Abstract no. 744, 1991 Ellis ME, Tharpe W. Red man syndrome associated with amphotericin B. British Medical Journal 300: 1468, 1990 Englehard D, Stutman HR, Marks MI. Interaction of ketoconazole with rifampin and isoniazid. New England Journal of Medicine 311: 1681–1683, 1984 Fainstein V, Bodey GP. Cardiorespiratory toxicity due to miconazole. Annals of Internal Medicine 93: 432–433, 1980 Fazio RA, Wickremesinghe PC, Arsura EL. Ketoconazole treatment of Candida esophagitis: a prospective study of 12 cases. American Journal of Gastroenterology 78: 261–264, 1983 Feinstein A, Sofer E, Trau H. Urticaria and fixed drug eruption in a patient treated with griseofulvin. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 10: 915–917, 1984 Ferguson RM, Sutherland DER, Simmons RL. Ketoconazole, cyclosporin metabolism and renal transplantation. Lancet 2: 882–883, 1982 Fisch RZ, Lahad A. Adverse psychiatric reaction to ketoconazole. American Journal of Psychiatry 146: 939–940, 1989 Fischer TJ, Klein RB, Kershnar HE. Miconazole in the treatment of chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis: a preliminary report. Journal of Pediatrics 91: 815–819, 1977 Fisher MA, Talbot GH, Maislin G. Risk factors for amphotericin B-associated nephrotoxicity. American Journal of Medicine 87: 547–552, 1989 Franklin IM, Elias E, Hirsch C. Fluconazole-induced jaundice. Lancet 336: 565, 1989 Fromtling RA. Overview of medically important antifungal azole derivatives. Clinical Microbiology Reviews 1: 187–217, 1988 Gaeta GB, Amer PR, Mansi L, Esposito V, Guisti G. Amphotericin B-induced depression in the phagocytic function of the isolated rat liver and its prevention by nifedipine. Journal of Hepatology 10: 168–173, 1990 Gallis HA, Drew RH, Pickard WW. Amphotericin B: 30 years of clinical experience. Reviews of Infectious Diseases 12: 308–329, 1990 Ganer A, Arathoon E, Stevens DA. Initial experience in therapy for progressive mycoses with itraconazole, the first clinically studied triazole. Reviews of Infectious Diseases 9: S77–S86, 1987 Gigliotti F, Shenep JL, Lott L, Thornton D. Induction of prostaglandin synthesis as the mechanism responsible for the chills and fever produced by infusing amphotericin B. Journal of Infectious Diseases 156: 784–789, 1987 Girardet RG, Melo JC, Fox MS. Concomitant administration of cyclosporin and ketoconazole for three and a half years in one heart transplant recipient. Transplantation 48: 887–890, 1989 Glynn AM, Slaughter RL, Brass C. Effects of ketoconazole on methylprednisolone pharmacokinetics and cortisol secretion. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 45: 366–372, 1989 Goenen M, Reynaert M, Jaumin P. A case of Candida albicans endocarditis 3 years after an aortic valve replacement: successful combined medical and surgical therapy. Journal of Cardiovascular Surgery 18: 391–396, 1977 Goldfarb NJ, Salzberger MB. Experiences in one hundred thirty-seven patients treated with griseofulvin. Archives of Dermatology 81: 859–862, 1960 Goodfield MJD, Rowell NR, Forster RA. Treatment of dermatophyte infection of the finger- and toe-nails with terbinafine (SF86-327, Lamisil), an orally active fungicidal agent. British Journal of Dermatology 121: 753–757, 1989 Googe JH, Walterspiel JN. Arrhythmia caused by amphotericin B in a neonate. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 7: 73, 1988 Gotz VP, Rand KH, Kramer BS. Effect of filtering amphotericin B infusions on the incidence and severity of phlebitis and selected adverse reactions. Drug Intelligence and Clinical Pharmacy 19: 436–439, 1985 Grant SM, Clissold SP. Fluconazole: a review of its pharmaco-dynamic and pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic potential in superficial and systemic mycoses. Drugs 39: 877–916, 1990 Grant SM, Clissold SP. Itraconazole: a review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties, and therapeutic use in superficial and systemic mycoses. Drugs 37: 310–344, 1989 Grasela TH, Goodwin SD, Walawander MK. Prospective surveillance of intravenous amphotericin B use patterns. Pharmacotherapy 10: 341–348, 1990a Grasela TH, Goodwin SD, Walawander MK, Cramer RL, Fuhs DW, et al. Prospective surveillance of intravenous amphotericin B use patterns. Pharmacotherapy 10: 341–348, 1990b Graves NM, Matas AJ, Hilligoss DM. Fluconazole/cyclosporin interaction. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 47: 208, 1990 Graybill JR. The long and the short of antifungal therapy. Infectious Disease Clinics of North America 2: 805–825, 1988 Graybill JR, Stevens DA, Galgiani JN. Itraconazole treatment of coccioidomycosis. American Journal of Medicine 89: 282–290, 1990 Graybill JR, Craven PC. Antifungal agents used in systemic mycoses: activity and therapeutic use. Drugs 25: 41–62, 1983 Gross M, Pickard W, Perfect JR. Retrospective review of amphotericin B use in a tertiary care medical center. American Journal of Hospital Pharmacy 44: 1353–1357, 1987 Gross MH, Fulkerson WJ, Moore JO. Prevention of amphotericin B-induced rigors by dantrolene. Archives of Internal Medicine 146: 1587–1588, 1986 Gussenhoven MJE, Haak A, Peereboom-Winia JDR. Stevens-Johnson syndrome after fluconazole. Lancet 388: 120, 1991 Haber RH, Oddone EZ, Gurbel PA. Acute pulmonary decompensation due to amphotericin B in the absence of granulocyte transfusions. New England Journal of Medicine 309: 836, 1986 Harder EJ, Hermans PE. Treatment of fungal infections with flucytosine. Archives of Internal Medicine 135: 231–237, 1975 Hargis JL, Bone RC, Stewart J, Rector N, Hiller FC. Intracavitary amphotericin B in the treatment of symptomatic pulmonary aspergillomas. American Journal of Medicine 68: 389–394, 1980 Hartman BJ. Fungal peritonitis. Infections in Surgery: 27-36, 1986 Haskell LP, Mennemyer RP, Greenman R, Pelezar C. Isolated erythroid hypoplasia and renal insufficiency induced by long-term griseofulvin therapy. Southern Medical Journal 83: 1327–1330, 1990 Hatfield SM, Crane LR, Duman K. Miconazole-induced alteration in tobramycin pharmacokinetics. Clinical Pharmacy 5: 415–419, 1986 Hay RJ, Clayton YM, Moore MK. An evaluation of itraconazole in the management of onychomycosis. British Medical Journal 119: 359–366, 1988 Hay RJ, Logan RA, Moore MK. A comparative study of terbinafine versus griseofulvin in ‘dry type’ dermatophyte infections. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 24: 243–246, 1991 Hay RJ, Del Palacio HA. First symposium on terbinafine (Lamisil). Held during the 10th Congress of the International Society of Human and Animal Mycology, Barcelona. Clinical and Experimental Dermatology 14: 97, 1989 Heel RC, Brogden RN, Pakes GE. Miconazole: a preliminary review of its therapeutic efficacy in systemic fungal infections. Drugs 19: 7–30, 1980 Heiberg JK, Svejgaard E. Toxic hepatitis during ketoconazole treatment. British Medical Journal 283: 825–826, 1981 Heidemann HT, Gerkens JF, Spickard WA, Jackson EK, Branch RA. Amphotericin B nephrotoxicity in humans decreased by salt repletion. American Journal of Medicine 75: 476–481, 1983 Heidemann HT, Bolten M, Inselmann G. Effect of chronic theophylline administration on amphotericin B nephrotoxicity in rats. Nephron 59: 294–298, 1991 Hermans PE, Keys TF. Antifungal agents used for deepseated mycotic infections. Mayo Clinic Proceedings 58: 223–231, 1983 Hillstrom L, Kjellin AK. Central nervosa symptoms som biverking vid mykosber handling med griseofulvin. Lakartidnigen 71: 4310, 1974 Hoeprich PD, Lawrence RM, Goldstein E. Treatment of coccidioidomycosis with miconazole. Journal of the American Medical Association 243: 1923–1926, 1980 Holmes J, Clements D. Jaundice in HIV positive hemophiliac. Lancet 1: 1027, 1989 Howitt KM, Ozlemski MA. Phenytoin toxicity induced by fluconazole. Medical Journal of Australia 151: 603–604, 1989 Hsuchen CC, Feingold DS. Selective membrane toxicity of the polyene antibiotics: studies on natural membranes. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 4: 316–319, 1973 Ikemoto H. A clinical study of fluconazole for the treatment of deep mycoses. Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease 12: 239S–247S, 1989 Isalska BJ, Stanbridge TN. Fluconazole in the treatment of candidal prosthetic valve endocarditis. British Medical Journal 297: 178–179, 1988 Ismail MA, Lerner SA. Disseminated blastomycoses in a pregnant woman: review of amphotericin B use during pregnancy. American Reviews of Respiratory Disease 126: 350–353, 1982 Janssen PAJ, Symoens JE. Hepatic reactions during ketoconazole treatment. American Journal of Medicine 74: 80–85, 1983 Janssen Pharmaceutica. Monistat I.V.® (miconazole) product labelling, Piscataway, New Jersey, 1991a Janssen Pharmaceutica. Nizoral® (ketoconazole) product labelling, Piscataway, New Jersey, 1991b Jordan WM, Bodey GP, Rodriquez V. Miconazole therapy for treatment of fungal infections in cancer patients. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 16: 792–797, 1979 Kandrotas RJ. Ketoconazole effects on methylprednisolone disposition and their joint suppression of endogenous cortisol. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 42: 465–470, 1987 Kauffman CA, Frame PT. Bone marrow toxicity associated with 5-fluorocytosine therapy. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 11: 244–247, 1977 Kaun CJ, Branch RA, Jackson EK. Effect of an adenosine receptor antagonist on acute amphotericin B nephrotoxicity. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 178: 285–291, 1990 Khan MI, Goss G, Gotsman A, Asvat MS. Sporothricosis arthritis: a case presentation and review of the literature. South African Medical Journal 64: 1099–1101, 1983 Khosla S, Wolfson JS, Demerjian Z. Adrenal crisis in the setting of high-dose ketoconazole therapy. Archives of Internal Medicine 149: 802–804, 1989 Kidd D, Ranagham EA, Morris TCM. Hypokalemia in patients with acute myeloid leukemia after treatment with fluconazole. Lancet 1: 1017, 1989 Knudsen LB. No association between griseofulvin and conjoined twinning. Lancet 2: 1097, 1987 Kojima T, Hasegawa T, Ishida H, Fujita M, Okamoto S. Griseofulvin-induced photodermatitis. Journal of Dermatology 15: 76–82, 1988 Kotani S, Hirose S, Niiya K, Kubonishi I, Miyoshi I. Anaphylaxis to flucytosine in a patient with AIDS. Journal of the American Medical Association 260: 3275–3276, 1988 Kovacs JA, Kovacs AA, Polis M, Bennett JE, Wright WC, et al. Cryptococcosis in the Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome. Annals of Internal Medicine 103: 533–538, 1985 Kowalsky SF, Dixon DM. Fluconazole: a new antifungal agent. Clinical Pharmacy 10: 179–194, 1991 Kramer MR, Marshall SE, Denning DW. Cyclosporin and itra-conazole interaction in heart and lung transplant recipients. Annals of Internal Medicine 113: 327–329, 1990 Kruger HU, Schuler U, Zimmerman R. No severe interaction of fluconazole, a triazole antifungal agent, with cyclosporin. Bone Marrow Transplantation 3: 271, 1988 Kucers A, Bennett N. Amphotericin B. In Kucers & Bennett (Eds). The use of antibiotics, 4th ed., pp. 1441–1477, J.B. Lippincott, Philadelphia, 1987 Kulpa J, Zaroulis CG, Good RA, Kutti J. Altered platelet function and circulation induced by amphotericin B in leukemic patients after platelet transfusion. Transfusion 21: 74–76, 1981 Kwan JTC, Foxall PJD, Davidson DGC. Interaction of cyclosporin and itraconazole. Lancet 2: 282, 1987 Labadie EL, Hamilton RH. Survival improvement in coccidioidal meningitis by high-dose intrathecal amphotericin B. Archives of Internal Medicine 146: 2013–2018, 1986 Lake-Bakaar G, Scheuer PJ, Sherlock S. Hepatic reactions associated with ketoconazole in the United Kingdom. British Medical Journal 294: 419–422, 1987 Lake-Bakaar G, Tom W, Lake-Bakaar D. Gastropathy and ketoconazole malabsorption in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Annals of Internal Medicine 109: 471–473, 1988 Larsen RA, Leal MAE, Chan LS. Fluconazole compared with amphotericin B plus flucytosine for cryptococcal meningitis in AIDS. Annals of Internal Medicine 113: 183–187, 1990 Lastnick G. Psychotic symptoms with griseofulvin. Journal of the American Medical Association 229: 1420–1421, 1974 Lavrijsen K, Van Houdt J, Thijs D, Meuldermans W, Heykants J. Interaction of miconazole, ketoconazole and itraconazole with rat-liver microsomes. Xenobiotica 17: 45–57, 1987 Lazar JD, Wilner KD. Drug interactions with fluconazole. Reviews of Infectious Diseases 12: 5327–5333, 1990 Lechner T, Grytzmann B, Baurle G. Hematogenous allergic contact dermatitis after oral administration of nystatin. Mykosen 30: 143–146, 1987 Lecky BRF. Griseofulvin-induced neuropathy. Lancet 335: 230–231, 1990 Lelawongs P, Barone JA, Colaizzi JL. Effect of food and gastric acidity on absorption of orally administered ketoconazole. Clinical Pharmacy 7: 228–235, 1988 Lewis JH, Zimmerman HJ, Benson GD. Hepatic injury associated with ketoconazole: analysis of 33 cases. Gastroenterology 86: 503–513, 1984 Li PK, Lai KN. Amphotericin Binduced ocular toxicity in cryptococcal meningitis. British Journal of Ophthalmology 73: 397–398, 1989 Lin AC, Goldwasser E, Bernard EM, Chapman SW. Amphotericin B blunts erythropoietin response to anemia. Journal of Infectious Diseases 161: 348–351, 1990 Loose DS, Kane PB, Hirst MA. Ketoconazole blocks adrenal ste-roidogenesis by inhibiting cytochrome P450-dependent enzymes. Journal of Clinical Investigation 71: 1495–1499, 1983 Luke DR, Wasan KM, Verani RR, Brunner LJ, Berens KL, et al. Attenuation of amphotericin B nephrotoxicity in the candi-diasis rat model. Nephron 59: 139–144, 1991 MacGregor RR, Bennett JE, Erslev AJ. Erythropoietin concentration in amphotericin B-induced anemia. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 14: 270–273, 1978 Maddux MS, Barriere SL. A review of complications of amphotericin B therapy: recommendations for prevention and management. Drug Intelligence and Clinical Pharmacy 14: 177–181, 1980 Madok R, Zoma A, Capell H. Fatal exacerbation of systemic lupus erythematosus after treatment with griseofulvin. British Medical Journal 291: 249–250, 1985 Magnasco AJ, Magnasco LD. Interaction of ketoconazole and ethanol. Clinical Pharmacy 5: 522–523, 1989 Marmion LC, Desser KB, Lilly RB. Reversible thrombocytosis and anemia due to miconazole therapy. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 10: 447–449, 1976 McCurdy DK, Frederic M, Elkinton JR. Renal tubular acidosis due to amphotericin B. New England Journal of Medicine 278: 124–131, 1968 McEvoy GK (Ed). Amphotericin B. In American Hospital Formulary Service Drug Information, pp. 71–74, American Society of Hospital Pharmacists, Bethesda, 1988 McEvoy GK (Ed). Fluconazole. In American Hospital Formulary Service Drug Information, pp. 72–78, American Society of Hospital Pharmacists, Bethesda, 1992a McEvoy GK (Ed). Ketoconazole. In American Hospital Formulary Service Drug Information, pp. 82–86, American Society of Hospital Pharmacists, Bethesda, 1992b Medoff G, Kobayashi GS. Strategies in the treatment of systemic fungal infections. New England Journal of Medicine 302: 145–155, 1980 Meeker T, Siegel M, Shiota F, Crawley J, MacGuffin R. Toxicity of amphotericin B, miconazole, and ketoconazole to human granulocyte progenitor cells in vitro. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 23: 169–171, 1983 Meredith CG, Maldonado AL, Speeg KV Jr. The effect of ketoconazole on hepatic oxidative drug metabolism in the rat in vivo and in vitro. Drug Metabolism and Disposition 13: 156–162, 1985 Meunier F, Aoun M, Gerard M. Therapy for oropharyngeal can-didiasis in the immunocompromised host: a randomized double-blind study of fluconazole vs ketoconazole. Reviews of Infectious Diseases 12: S364–S368, 1990 Meunier-Carpentier F, Snoeck R, Gerain J, Muller C, Klastersky J. Amphotericin B nasal spray as prophylaxis against asper-gillosis in patients with acute neutropenia. New England Journal of Medicine 311: 1056, 1984 Meyer R, Axelrod JL. Fatal aplastic anemia resulting from flucytosine. Journal of the American Medical Association 228: 1573, 1974 Meyer RD, Sattler FR, Linne SR. Miconazole for treatment of disseminated coccidioidomycosis: unfavorable experience. Chest 6: 825–831, 1978 Miller RP, Bates JH. Amphotericin B toxicity: a follow-up report of 53 patients. Annals of Internal Medicine 71: 1089–1095, 1969 Mion G, Verdon R, Legulluche Y, Carsin H, Garcia A, et al. Fatal toxic epidermal necrolysis after griseofulvin. Lancet 2: 1331, 1989 Mitchell AS, Holland JT. Fluconazole and phenytoin: a predictable interaction. British Medical Journal 298: 1315, 1989 Miyagawa S, Okuchi T, Shiomi Y, Sakamoto K. Subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus lesions precipitated by griseofulvin. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 21: 343–346, 1989 Miyagawa S, Sakamoto K. Adverse reactions to griseofulvin in patients with circulating anti-SSA/RO and SSB/LA autoanti-bodies. American Journal of Medicine 87: 100–102, 1989 Morgenstern CR, Powles R, Robinson B. Cyclosporin interaction with ketoconazole and melphalan. Lancet 2: 1342, 1982 Murray HW. Allergic reactions to amphotericin B. New England Journal of Medicine 290: 693, 1974 Naito HK, McHenry MC, Lewis LA. Drug-induced dyslipoproteinemia: a report of two cases. Clinical Chemistry 26: 163–168, 1980 Nashan D, Knuth UA, Weidinger G. The antimycotic drug terbinafine in contrast to ketoconazole lacks acute affects on the pituitary-testicular function of healthy men: a placebo-controlled double-blind trial. Acta Endocrinologica 120: 677–681, 1989 Negroni R, Palmieri O, Koren F. Oral treatment of paracocci-dioidomycosis and histoplasmosis with itraconazole in humans. Reviews of Infectious Diseases 9: S47–S50, 1987 Neill HB. Miconazole carrier solution, hyperlipidemia and hematologic problems. New England Journal of Medicine 296: 1479, 1977 Neuhaus G, Pavic N, Pletcher M. Anaphylactic reaction after oral fluconazole. British Medical Journal 302: 1341, 1991 Niemegeers CJE, Levron JC, Awouters F, Janssen PAJ. Inhibition and induction of microsomal enzymes in the rat. A comparative study of four antimycotics: miconazole, econazole, clotrimazole, and ketoconazole. Archives Internationales de Pharmacodynamie et de Therapie 251: 26–38, 1981 Norris D, Dutcher JP, Kendall J. Granulocyte transfusion therapy and amphotericin B: adverse reactions?. American Journal of Hematology 31: 102–108, 1989 Novakova I, Donnelly P, De Witte T. Itraconazole and cyclosporin nephrotoxicity. Lancet 2: 920–921, 1987 Nuijten STM, Schuller JL. Itraconazole in the treatment of tinea corporis: a pilot study. Reviews of Infectious Diseases 9: S119–S120, 1987 Okazaki H, Hatakeyana M, Mori M, Minato N, Sumiya M, et al. A case of mixed connective tissue disease exacerbated by griseofulvin complicating aseptic meningoencephalitis and disseminated intravascular coagulation. Ryumachi 30: 418–423, 1990 Oldfield EC, Garst PD, Hostettler C, White M, Samuelson D. Randomized, double-blind trial of 1- versus 4-hour amphotericin B infusion durations. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 34: 1402–1406, 1990 Olivero JJ, Lozano-Mendex J, Ghafary EM. Mitigation of amphotericin B nephrotoxicity by mannitol. British Medical Journal 1: 550–551, 1975 Paladino JA, Crass RE. Amphotericin B and flucytosine in the treatment of candidal cystitis. Clinical Pharmacy 1: 349–352, 1982 Pareek SS. Nystatin-induced fixed eruption. British Journal of Dermatology 103: 679–680, 1980 Patterson RM, Ackerman GL. Renal tubular acidosis due to amphotericin B nephrotoxicity. Archives of Internal Medicine 127: 241–244, 1971 Perfect JR, Granger DL, Durack DT. Effects of antifungal agents and gamma interferon on macrophage cytotoxicity for fungi and tumor cells. Journal of Infectious Diseases 156: 316–323, 1987 Perfect JR, Klotman ME, Gilbert CC, Crawford DD, Rosner GL, et al. Prophylactic intravenous amphotericin B in neutropenic autologous bone marrow transplant recipients. Abstract no. 1245. 31st Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, Chicago, September 29-October 2, 1991 Perraut Jr LE, Perraut LE, Bleiman B, Lyons J. Successful treatment of Candida albicans endopthalmitis with intravitreal amphotericin B. Archives of Ophthalmology 99: 1565–1567, 1981 Pfizer Inc. Diflucan® (fluconazole) product monograph, New York, 1990 Pfizer Inc. Diflucan® (fluconazole) product information, New York, 1991 Phillips P, Graybill JR, Fetchick R. Adrenal response to corticotropin during therapy with itraconazole. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 31: 647–649, 1987 Phillips RJM, Watson SA, McKay FF. An open multicentre study of the efficacy and safety of a single dose of fluconazole 150 mg in the treatment of vaginal candidiasis in general practice. British Journal of Clinical Practice 44: 219–222, 1990 Physicians’ Desk Reference. Fungizone intravenous prescribing information, 42nd ed., pp. 2052–2053, Medical Economics Co., Oradell, 1988 Pichard L, Fabre I, Fabre G. Cyclosporin A drug interactions: screening for inducers and inhibitors of cytochrome P-450 (cyclosporin A oxidase) in primary cultures of human hepatocytes and in liver microsomes. Drug Metabolism and Disposition 18: 595–606, 1990 Pizzo PA, Robichaud KJ, Gill FA, Witebsky FG. Empiric antibiotic and antifungal therapy for cancer patients with prolonged fever and granulocytopenia. American Journal of Medicine 72: 101–111, 1982 Polsky B, Depman MR, Gold JW, Galicich JH, Armstrong D. Intraventricular therapy of cryptococcal meningitis via a subcutaneous reservoir. American Journal of Medicine 81: 24–28, 1986 Pont A, Williams PL, Aznar S. Ketoconazole blocks testosterone synthesis. Archives of Internal Medicine 142: 2137–2140, 1982a Pont A, Williams PL, Loose DS. Ketoconazole blocks adrenal steroid synthesis. Annals of Internal Medicine 97: 370–372, 1982b Pont A, Graybill JR, Craven PC. High-dose ketoconazole therapy and adrenal and testicular function in humans. Archives of Internal Medicine 144: 2150–2153, 1984 Pont A, Goldman ES, Sugar AM. Ketoconazole-induced increase in estradiol-testosterone ratio: probable explanation for gyne-comastia. Archives of Internal Medicine 145: 1429–1431, 1985 Record CO, Skinner JM, Sleight P, Speller DC. Candida endocarditis treated with 5-fluorocytosine. British Medical Journal 1: 262–264, 1971 Redeker AG, Sterling RE, Bronow RS. Effect of griseofulvin in acute intermittent porphyria. Journal of the American Medical Association 188: 466–468, 1964 Restrepo A, Robledo J, Gomez I. Itraconazole therapy in lymphangitic and cutaneous sporotrichosis. Archives of Dermatology 122: 413–417, 1986 Rimington C, Morgan PN, Nicholls K, Everall JD, Davies RR. Griseofulvin administration and porphyrin metabolism. Lancet 2: 318–322, 1963 Robinson PA, Knirsch AK, Joseph JA. Fluconazole for life-threatening fungal infections in patients who cannot be treated with conventional antifungal agents. Reviews of Infectious Diseases 12: S349–S363, 1990 Rolan PE, Somogyi AA, Drew MJ. Phenytoin intoxication during treatment with parenteral miconazole. British Medical Journal 287: 1760, 1983 Rosa FW, Hernandez C, Carlo WA. Griseofulvin teratology, including two thoracopagus conjoined twins. Lancet 2: 1097, 1987 Rose HD, Roth DA, Barboriak JJ. Hyperlipidemia related to miconazole therapy. Annals of Internal Medicine 91: 491–492, 1979 Roselle GA, Kauffman CA. Amphotericin B and 5-fluorocytosine: In vitro effects on lymphocyte function. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 14: 398–401, 1978 Rubin RH, Debruin MF, Knirsch AK. Fluconazole therapy for patients with serious Candida infections who have failed standard therapies. Abstract no. 71. 29th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, Houston, Texas, September 17-20, 1989 Rubin SI, Krawiec DR, Gilbers H, Shanks RD. Nephrotoxicity of amphotericin B in dogs: a comparison of two methods of administration. Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research 53: 3–28, 1989 Rustin MH, Bunker CB, Dowd PM, Robinson TW. Erythema multiforme due to griseofulvin. British Journal of Dermatology 120: 455–458, 1989 Ryder NS. The mechanism of action of terbinafine. Clinical and Experimental Dermatology 14: 101–103, 1989 Saag MS, Dismukes WE. Azole antifungal agents: emphasis on new triazoles. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 32: 1–8, 1988 Sabra R, Branch RA. Amphotericin B nephrotoxicity. Drug Safety 5: 94–108, 1990 Salaki JS, Louria DB, Chmel H. Fungal and yeast infections of the central nervous system: a clinical review. Medicine 63: 108–132, 1984 Samonis G, Rolston K, Karl C. Prophylaxis of antifungal can-didiasis with fluconazole. Reviews of Infectious Diseases 12: S369–S373, 1990 Santen RJ, Van den Bossche H, Symoens J. Site of action of low dose ketoconazole on androgen biosynthesis in men. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 57: 732, 1983 Savage J. Fixed drug eruption to the griseofulvin. British Journal of Dermatology 97: 107–108, 1977 Savin R. Successful treatment of chronic tinea pedis (Moccasin type) with terbinafine (Lamisil). Clinical and Experimental Dermatology 14: 116–119, 1989 Savin RC, Zaias N. Treatment of chronic moccasin-type tinea pedis with terbenafine: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 23: 804–807, 1990 Schlegel RJ, Bernier GM, Bellanti JA, Maybee DA, Osborne GB, et al. Severe candidiasis associated with thymic dysplasia, IgA deficiency, and plasma antilymphocyte effects. Pediatrics 45: 926–936, 1970 Seyffer R, Eichelbaum M, Jensen JC. Antipyrine metabolism is not affected by terbinafine, a new antifungal agent. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 37: 231–233, 1989 Sharkey PK, Rinaldi MG, Lerner CJ. High dose itraconazole in the treatment of severe mycoses Abstract no. 575. 28th Inter-science Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, Los Angeles, October 23-26, 1988 Shaw JTB, Tarbit MH, Troke PF. Cytochrome P-450 mediated sterol synthesis and metabolism: differences in sensitivity to fluconazole and other azoles. In Fromtling RA (Ed) Recent trends in the discovery, development and evaluation of antifungal agents, pp. 125–139, J.R. Prous Science Publishers, Barcelona, 1987 Shepard JH, Canafax DM, Simmons RL. Cyclosporin-ketoconazole: a potentially dangerous drug-drug interaction. Clinical Pharmacy 5: 468, 1986 Sheth NK, Rose HD, Krueger JA. Side effects of miconazole for systemic mycoses. New England Journal of Medicine 297: 786–787, 1977 Shuster I. The interaction of representative members from two classes of antimycotics — the azoles and the allyamines — with cytochromes P-450 in steroidogenic tissues and liver. Xeno-biotica 15: 529–546, 1985 Smith AG. Potentiation of oral anticoagulants by ketoconazole. British Medical Journal 288: 188–189, 1984 Smith EB. History of antifungals. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 23: 776–778, 1990 Smith J, Hows J, Donnelly P. Interaction of cyclosporin A and ketoconazole. Experimental Hematology 11: 176–178, 1983 Smith SR, Galloway MJ, Reilly JT, Davies JM. Amiloride prevents amphotericin B related hypokalemia in neutropenic patients. Journal of Clinical Pathology 41: 494–497, 1988 Sonino N. The use of ketoconazole as an inhibitor of steroid production. New England Journal of Medicine 317: 812–818, 1987 Soupart A, Decaux G. Nifedipine and amphotericin B nephrotoxicity in the rat. Nephron 5: 278–280, 1989 Stamm AM, Diasio RB, Dismukes WE, Shadomy S, Cloud GA, et al. Toxicity of amphotericin B plus flucytosine in 194 patients with cryptococcal meningitis. American Journal of Medicine 83: 236–242, 1987 Stamm AM, Dismukes WE. Current therapy of pulmonary and disseminated fungal diseases. Chest 83: 911–917, 1983 Starke JR, Mason EO Jr, Kramer WG, Kaplan SL. Pharmaco-kinetics of amphotericin B in infants and children. Journal of Infectious Diseases 155: 766–774, 1987 Stern GA, Fetkenhour CL, O’Grady RB. Intravitreal amphotericin B treatment of Candida endophthalmitis. Archives of Ophthalmology 95: 89–93, 1977 Stern JJ, Hartman BJ, Sharkey P, Rowland V, Squires KE, et al. Oral fluconazole therapy for patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and cryptococcosis: experience with 22 patients. American Journal of Medicine 85: 477–480, 1988 Stevens DA, Levine HB, Deresinski SC. Miconazole in coccidi-oidomycosis: II. therapeutic and pharmacologic studies in man. American Journal of Medicine 60: 191–202, 1976 Stevens DA. Miconazole in the treatment of systemic fungal infections. American Reviews of Respiratory Disease 116: 801–806, 1977 Stevens DA, Restrepo MA, Cortes A. Paracoccidioidomycosis (South American blastomycosis): treatment with miconazole. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 27: 801–807, 1978 Stevens DA. Miconazole in the treatment of coccidioidomycosis. Drugs 26: 347–354, 1983 Stricker BHC, Blok APR, Brankhorst FB. Ketoconazole-associ-ated hepatic injury: a clinicopathological study of 55 cases. Journal of Hepatology 3: 399–406, 1986 Struijk DG, Krediet RT, Boeschoten EW, Rietra PJGM, Arisz L. Antifungal treatment of Candida peritonitis in CAPD patients (letter). Lancet 1: 1375, 1987 Sugar AM, Stevens DA, Aslip S. Pharmacokinetics of high dose ketoconazole (K) in coccidioidomycosis (Cx). Abstract no. 1100. 24th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, Washington, DC, October 8-10, 1984 Sugar AM. The polyene macrolide antifungal drugs. In Peterson & Verhoef (Eds) The antimicrobial agents annual, pp. 229–244, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1986 Sugar AM, Saunders C, Idelson BA. Interaction of fluconazole and cyclosporine. Annals of Internal Medicine 110: 844, 1989 Sugar AM, Stern JJ, Dupont B. Overview: treatment of cryptococcal meningitis. Reviews of Infectious Diseases 12: S338–S348, 1990 Sugar AM, Saunders C. Oral fluconazole as suppressive therapy of disseminated cryptococcosis in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. American Journal of Medicine 85: 481–489, 1988 Sung JP, Grendahl JG, Levine HB. Intravenous and intrathecal miconazole therapy for systemic mycoses. Western Journal of Medicine 126: 5–13, 1977 Sung JP, Grendahl JG. Side effects of miconazole for systemic mycoses. New England Journal of Medicine 297: 786–787, 1977 Takacs FJ, Tomkiewicz ZM, Merrill JP. Amphotericin B nephrotoxicity with irreversible renal failure. Annals of Internal Medicine 59: 716–724, 1963 Tasset C, Preat V, Roland M. The influence of Myrj 59 on the solubility, toxicity and activity of amphotericin B. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology 43: 297–302, 1991 Taylor B, Duffill M. Toxic epidermal necrolysis from griseofulvin. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 19: 565–567, 1988 Thyagarajan J, Kamalan A, Thombiah AS. Fixed drug eruption to the griseofulvin. Mykosen 24: 482–484, 1981 Tolins JP, Raij L. Chronic amphotericin B nephrotoxicity in the rat: protective effect of calcium channel blockade. Journal of the American Society of Nephrology 2: 98–102, 1991 Trenk D, Brett W, Jahnchen E. Time course of cyclosporin/itraconazole interaction. Lancet 2: 1335, 1987 Tucker RM, Williams PL, Arathoon EG. Treatment of mycoses with itraconazole. Annals of the New York Academy of Science 544: 451–470, 1988 Tucker RM, Galgiani JN, Denning DW. Treatment of coccidioidal meningitis with fluconazole. Reviews of Infectious Diseases 12: S380–S389, 1990a Tucker RM, Hag Y, Denning DW. Adverse events associated with itraconazole in 189 patients on chronic therapy. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 26: 561–566, 1990b Tucker WS, Snell BB, Island PP. Reversible adrenal insufficiency induced by ketoconazole. Journal of the American Medical Association 253: 2413–2414, 1985 Tynes BS, Utz JP, Bennett JE, Ailing DW. Reducing amphoter-icin B reactions: a double-blind study. American Reviews of Respiratory Disease 87: 264–268, 1963 Utz JP, Bennett JE, Brandriss MW, Butler WT, Hill GJ. Amphotericin B toxicity. Annals of Internal Medicine 61: 334–354, 1964 Utz JP. Current and future chemotherapy of central nervous system fungal infections. Advances in Neurology 6: 127–132, 1974 Utz JP, Garriques IL, Sande MA, Warner JF, Mandell GL, et al. Therapy of cryptococcosis with a combination of flucytosine and amphotericin B. Journal of Infectious Diseases 132: 368–373, 1975 Van Cauteren HV, Heykants J, De Coster R. Itraconazole: pharmacologic studies in animals and humans. Reviews of Infectious Diseases 9: S43–S46, 1987 Van Dermeer JW, Keuning JJ, Scheijgrong HW. The influence of gastric acidity on the bioavailability of ketoconazole. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 6: 552–554, 1980 Van Dijke CPH, Veerman FR, Haverkamp HC. Anaphylactic reactions to ketoconazole. British Medical Journal 287: 1673, 1983 Van Dijke CPH, Weber JCP. Interaction between oral contraceptives and griseofulvin. British Medical Journal 288: 1125–1126, 1984 Van Parys G, Evenepoel C, Van Damme B. Ketoconazole-induced hepatitis: a case with definite cause-effect relationship. Liver 7: 27–30, 1987 Van’t Wout JW, Nattie H, van Furth R. A prospective study of the efficacy of fluconazole (UK-49,858) against deep-seated fungal infections. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 21: 665–672, 1988 Vanden Bossche H. Itraconazole: a selective inhibitor of the cytochrome P450 dependent ergosterol biosynthesis. In Fromtling RA (Ed). Recent trends in the discovery, development and evaluation of antifungal agents, pp. 207–221, J.R. Prous Science Publishers, Barcelona, 1987 Villars V, Jones TC. Clinical efficacy and tolerability of terbinafine (Lamisil) — a new topical and systemic fungicidal drug for treatment of dermatomycoses. Clinical and Experimental Dermatology 14: 124–127, 1989 Viscoli C, Castagnola E, Floredda F. Fluconazole in the treatment of candidiasis in immunocompromised children. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 35: 365–367, 1991 Wade TR, Jones HE, Chanda JJ. Intravenous miconazole therapy of mycotic infections. Archives of Internal Medicine 139: 784–786, 1979 Warda J, Barriere SL. Amphotericin B nephrotoxicity. Drug Intelligence and Clinical Pharmacy 19: 25–26, 1985 Wasan KM, Vadiei K, Lopez-Berestein G, Verani RR, Luke DR. Pentoxifylline in amphotericin B toxicity rat model. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 34: 241–244, 1990 Washburn RG, Klym DM, Kroll MH, Bennett JE. Rapid enzymatic method for measurement of serum flucytosine levels. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 17: 673–675, 1986 Watsky MS, Lynfield YL. Lupus erythematosus exacerbated by griseofulvin. Cutis 17: 361–363, 1976 Watson PG, Lochan RG, Redding VJ. Drug interactions with coumarin derivative anticoagulants. British Medical Journal 285: 1045–1046, 1982 Williams DI, Marten RH, Sarkany I. Oral treatment of ringworm with griseofulvin. Lancet 2: 1212–1213, 1958 Winn WA. Coccidioidomycosis and amphotericin B. Medical Clinics of North America 47: 1131–1148, 1963 Wise GJ, Wainstein S, Goldberg P, Kozinn PJ. Candidal cystitis: management by continuous bladder irrigation with amphotericin B. Journal of the American Medical Association 224: 1636–1637, 1973 Wise GJ, Kozinn PJ, Goldberg P. Amphotericin B as a urologic irrigant in the management of noninvasive candiduria. Journal of Urology 128: 82–84, 1982 Wright DG, Robichaud KJ, Pizzo PA, Deisseroth AB. Lethal pulmonary reactions associated with the combined use of amphotericin B and leukocyte transfusions. New England Journal of Medicine 304: 1185–1189, 1981 Yamashita SK, Ludwig EA, Middleton E Jr. Lack of pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic interactions between ketoconazole and prednisolone. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 49: 558–570, 1991 Yeh J, Shiu-Ching S, Summerton C. Potentiation of action of warfarin by itraconazole. British Medical Journal 301: 669, 1990 Zaias N. Management of onychomycosis with oral terbinafine. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 23: 810–812, 1990 Zuger A, Louie E, Holzman RS, Simberkoff MS, Rahal JJ. Cryp-drug interactions, tococcal disease in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Diagnostic features and outcome of treatment. Annals of Internal Medicine 104: 234–240, 1986