The European Communities — Towards supranationalism at last?

D. Wyatt, “New Legal Order, Or Old”, 7European Law Review (1982), 147. E.g. H.G. Schermers,International Institutional Law, Sijthoff & Noordhoff, 1980, 28. An excellent analysis of the position with regard to remedies in Community law can be found in J. Bridge, “Procedural Aspects of the Enforcement of European Community Law through the Systems of the Member States”, 9European Law Review (1984), 28. Joined Cases C-6 / 90 & C-9 / 90Francovich and Others v.Italian Republic. Judgment of November 19 1991.The Times, November 20th 1991, p.36. O.J. 1980 L 283 / 23. On the Italian Government's non-implementation see 22 / 87Commission v.Italy (1989) E.C.R. 143. 26 / 62Van Gend en Loos v.Nederlandse Administratie der Belastingen (1963) E.C.R. 1, (1963) C.M.L.R. 105. 6 / 64Costa v.ENEL (1964) E.C.R. 585, (1964) C.M.L.R. 425. 106 / 77Simmenthal (1978) E.C.R. 629, (1978) 3 C.M.L.R. 263; C-213 / 89R. v.Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food exp. Factortame (1990) E.C.R. 2433. 26 / 62Van Gend en Loos v.Nederlandse Administratie der Belastingen (1963) E.C.R. 1, (1963) C.M.L.R. 105. J.H. Weiler, “The Community System: the Dual Character of Supranationalism”, 1Yearbook of European Law (1981), 267 at 275. 60 / 75Russo v.AIMA (1976) E.C.R. 45; 33 / 76Rewe (1976) E.C.R. 1989, (1977) 1 C.M.L.R. 533; 158 / 80Rewe (1981) E.C.R. 1805; 199 / 82San Giorgio (1983) E.C.R. 3595, (1985) 2 C.M.L.R. 65. 199 / 82San Giorgio (1983) E.C.R. 3595, (1985) 2 C.M.L.R. 65. 158 / 80Rewe (1981) E.C.R. 1805. 14 / 82Von Colson & Kamann v.Land Nordrhein-Westfalen (1984) E.C.R. 1891; 79 / 83Harz v.Deutsche Tradax (1984), 1921, (1986) 3 C.M.L.R. 430. FIDE,Remedies in Domestic Law (Reports of the 9th Congress, 1980), General Introduction by Mertens de Wilmars, para. 1.3. E.B. Haas,The Uniting of Europe: political, social and economic forces 1950–57, Stevens, 1958, 34. E.g. K. Wheare,Federal Government, Oxford University Press, 1964, 4th ed. (taken from E. Stein, P. Hay & M. Waelbroeck,European Community Law and Institutions in Perspective, Bobbs-Merrill, 1976, at 17) at 2 states:-“The Constitution of the United States establishes an association of states so organized that powers are divided between a general government which in certain matters ... is independent of the governments of the associated, and on the other hand, state governments which are in certain matters are, in their turn, independent of the general government. This involves as a necessary consequence, that general and regional governments both operate directly upon the people; each citizen is subject to two governments.” C-213 / 89R. v.Minister of Agriculture, Fischeries and Food exp. Factortame (1990) E.C.R. 2433; (1990) 3 C.M.L.R. 1. See also Ross, “Refining Effective Enjoyment”, 15European Law Review (1990), 476; A. Barav, “Enforcement of Community Rights in the National courts: the case for jurisdiction to grant an interim relief”, 26Common Market Law Review (1989), 369; N.P. Gravells, “Disapplying an Act of Parliament pending a preliminary ruling; constitutional law enormity or community law right?”, (1989)Public Law 568. Ross,supra n. 18, at 479. M.A. Dauses, “Protection of Fundamental Rights in the Community Legal Order”, 10European Law Review (1985), 398 at 408–409, makes a similar point in relation to fundamental rights. Joined Cases C-143 / 88 & C-92 / 89Zuckerfabrik Suedithermarschen AG v.Hauptzollamt Itzehoe & Another, Judgment of February 21st 1991.The Times, 27th March 1991, p.40. The court had already refused to answer a similar question in 380 / 87Enichem (1989) E.C.R. 2491, stating that Directive 75 / 442 on waste (O.J. 1975 L194 / 39) was not directly effective. This judgment would seem to have been overruled byBonifaci. Seecontra A. Barav, “Damages Against the State for failure to implement EC Directives”, 141New Law Journal (1991), 1584 at 1604, who suggests that where damage is suffered through acts or omissions of a private party an action in damages may lie against the Member State. H. Rasmussen,On Law and Policy in the European Court of Justice, Nijhoff, 1984; J.-H. Weiler, “The Court of Justice on Trial”, 24Common Market Law Review (1987), 555; M. Capiletti, “Is The Court of Justice ‘Running Wild’?“, 12European Law Review 1. The most celebrated example of this was the French Conseil d'Etat's refusal to apply Community Law in the Cohn-Bendit judgment in 1978. Conseil d'Etat, 22nd December 1978, Dalloz, 1979, p.155.