Infective endocarditis in intravenous drug abusers

Sheagren JN:Endocarditis complicating parenteral drug abuse. In Current Cinical Topics in Infectious Diseases. Edited by Remington JS, Swartz MN. New York: McGraw-Hill;1981:211–233. Sande MA, Lee BL, Millills J, Chambers HF: Endocarditis in intravenous drug users. In Infective Endocarditis, edn 2. Edited by Kaye D. New York: Raven Press; 1992:345–359. Cherubin CE, Sapira JD: The medical complications of drug addiction and the medical assessment of the intravenous drug user: 25 years later. Ann Intern Med 1993, 119:1017–1028. Miró JM, del Rio A, Mestres CA: Infective endocarditis in itravenous drug abusers and HIV-1 infected patients. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2002, 16:273–295. This article reviews the epidemiology, clinical characteristics, diagnosis, prognosis, and surgery of IE in IVDA, analyzes the role of HIV infection in the clinical picture and outcome of IE in IVDA, and reviews all cases published of IE in HIV-infected patients who were not IVDA. Brown PD, Levine D: Infective endocarditis in the injection drug user. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2002, 16:645–655. This article updates the pathophysiology, microbiology, clinical presentation, complications, laboratory findings, and treatment of IE in IVDA. Miró JM, Cruceta A, Gatell JM: Infective endocarditis (IE) in Spanish I.V. drug addicts (IVDA): analysis of 1529 episodes (1978-1993) [abstract-109: 32.36]. In 3rd International Symposium on Modern Concepts in Endocarditis. Boston: July 13–15, 1995. Durack DT, Lukes AS, Bright DK, Duke Endocarditis Service: New criteria for diagnosis of infective endocarditis: utilization of specific echocardiographic findings. Am J Med 1994, 96:200–209. Li JS, Sexton DJ, Mick N, et al.: Proposed modifications to the Duke criteria for the diagnosis of infective endocarditis. Clin Infect Dis 2000, 30:633–638. The recently modified Durack criteria are useful for the diagnosis of IE in IVDA. Palepu A, Cheung SS, Montessori V, et al.: Factors other than the Duke criteria associated with infective endocarditis among injection drug users. Clin Invest Med 2002, 25:118–125. Rothman RE, Majmudar MD, Kelen GD, et al.: Detection of bacteremia in emergency department patients at risk for infective endocarditis using universal 16S rRNA primers in a decontaminated polymerase chain reaction assay. J Infect Dis 2002, 186:1677–1681. This article describes the use of a PCR assay that allowed rapid detection of bacteremia (6-7 hours) in IVDA with significant infections, including bacteremia and IE. Hecht SR, Berger M: Right-sided endocarditis in intravenous drug users. prognostic features in 102 episodes. Ann Intern Med 1992, 117:560–566. Martin-Davila P, Fortun J, Navas E, et al.: Analysis of mortality and risk factors associated in native valve endocarditis in drug users: the importance of vegetation size [abstract: L-762]. In 42nd Interscience Conference on Antimcrobial Agents and Chemotherapy (ICAAC) Abstracts, American Society for Microbiology. San Diego: September 27–30, 2002. Torres-Tortosa M, González M, Pérez E, et al.: Endocarditis infecciosa en heroinónamos en la provincia de Cádiz. Un estudio multicéntrico sobre 150 episodios. Med Clin (Barc) 1992, 98:521–526. Demin AA, Drobysheva VP, Vel’ter OIu: Infectious endocarditis in intravenous drug abusers. Klin Med (Mosk) 2000, 78:47–51. Zou Q, Hu P, Jiang Y: Characteristics and treatment of Staphylococcus endocarditis. Zhonghua Nei Ke Za Zhi 1996, 35:455–457. Yoong KY, Cheong I: A study of Malaysian drug addicts with human immunodeficiency syndrome. Int J STD AIDS 1997, 8:118–123. Thamlikitkul V, Praditsuwan R, Permpikul C, Jootar P: Native valve infective endocarditis at Siriraj Hospital, 1982–1989. J Med Assoc Thai 1991, 74:313–322. Ruiz E, Schirmbeck T, Figueiredo LT: A study of infectious endocarditis in Ribeirao Preto, SP-Brazil. Analysis of cases occurring between 1992 and 1997. Arq Bras Cardiol 2000, 74:217–231. De Rosa A, Botvinik G, Kaufman S, Rigou D: Endocarditis infecciosa y drogadicción. Medicina (Buenos Aires) 1994, 54:193–198. Williams PG, Ansell SM, Milne FJ: Illicit intravenous drug use in Johannesburg-medical complications and prevalence of HIV infection. S Afr Med J 1997, 87:889–891. Spijkerman IJ, van Ameijden EJ, Mientjes GH, et al.: Human immunodeficiency virus infection and other risk factors for skin abscesses and endocarditis among injection drug users. J Clin Epidemiol 1996, 49:1149–1154. Frontera JA, Gradon JD: Right-side endocarditis in injection drug users: review of proposed mechanisms of pathogenesis. Clin Infect Dis 2000, 30:374–379. This excellent article reviews and proposes several pathogenetic mechanisms in order to explain the high prevalence of right-sided endocarditis in IVDA. Chambers HF, Morris DL, Täuber MG, Modin G: Cocaine use and the risk of endocarditis in intravenous drug abusers. Ann Intern Med 1987, 106:833–836. Torres-Tortosa M, Rivero A, de Alarcon A, et al.: Decrease in the annual frequency of infectious endocarditis among intravenous drug users in southern Spain. Enferm Infect Microbiol Clin 2000, 18:293–294. Cannon NJ, Cobbs CG: Infective endocarditis in drug addicts. In Infective Endocarditis. Edited by Kaye D. Baltimore: University Park Press; 1976:111–127. Miró JM: Endocarditis infecciosa en drogadictos: estudio epidemiológico, clínico y experimental. Universidad de Barcelona: Tesis doctoral; 1994. Wilson WR, Karchmer AW, Dajani AS, et al.: Antibiotic treatment of adults with infective endocarditis due to streptococci, enterococci, staphylococci and HACEK microorganisms. JAMA 1995, 274:1706–1713. Rubinstein E, Carbon C, and the Endocarditis Working Group of the International Society of Chemotherapy: Staphylococcal endocarditis - recommendations for therapy. Clin Microbiol Infect 1998, 4:3S27–3S33. The standard therapy for MSSA endocarditis on the native valve is a 4- to 6-week course of intravenous nafcillin or cloxacillin (8-12 g/d). Korzeniowski O, Sande MA, The National Collaborative Endocarditis Study Group: Combination antimicrobial therapy for Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis in patients addicted to parenteral drugs and in nonaddicts: a prospective study. Ann Intern Med 1982, 97:496–503. Bayer AS, Norman DC: Valve-site specific pathogenic differences between right-sided and left-sided bacterial endocarditis. Chest 1990, 98:200–205. Sande MA, Johnson ML: Antimicrobial therapy of experimental endocarditis caused by Staphylococcus aureus. J Infect Dis 1975, 131:367–375. Sande MA, Courtney KB: Nafcillin-gentamicin synergism in experimental staphylococcal endocarditis. J Lab Clin Med 1976, 88:118–124. Chambers HF, Miller T, Newman MD: Right-sided Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis in intravenous drug abusers: two-week combination therapy. Ann Intern Med 1988, 109:619–624. Espinosa FJ, Valdes M, Martín Luengo M, et al.: Right-sided endocarditis caused by Staphylococcus aureus in parenteral drug addicts: evaluation of a combined therapeutic scheme for 2 weeks versus conventional treatment. Enferm Infect Microbiol Clin 1993, 11:235–240. Torres-Tortosa M, de Cueto M, Vergara A, et al.: Indications and therapeutic results of an antibiotic regimen lasting two weeks in intravenous drug users with right-sided S. aureus infective endocarditis: a multicentre study of 139 consecutive cases. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1994, 13:533–534. Fortún J, Pérez-Molina JA, Añón MT, et al.: Right-sided endocarditis caused by Staphylococcus aureus in drug abusers. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1995, 39:525–528. Ribera E, Gómez V, Cortes E, et al.: Effectiveness of cloxacillin with or without gentamicin in short-term therapy for rightsided Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis: a randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 1996, 125:969–974. Fortún J, Navas E, Martínez-Beltrán J, et al.: Short-course therapy for right-side endocarditis due to Staphylococcus aureus in drug abusers: cloxacillin versus glycopeptides in combination with gentamici. Clin Infect Dis 2001, 33:120–125. This is the latest randomized clinical trial to compare the efficacy and safety of a 2-week course of cloxacillin plus gentamicin versus vancomycin plus gentamicin versus teicoplanin plus gentamicin in IVDA with right-sided S. aureus endocarditis. The main conclusion is that the glycopeptide-containing combinations are ineffective and are associated with adverse events. Miró JM, Gatell JM, Pujadas R, et al.: Right-sided endocarditis with Staphylococcus aureus. Ann Intern Med 1989, 110:497–498. Small PM, Chambers HF: Vancomycin for Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis in intravenous drug abusers. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1990, 34:1227–1231. Lodise TP, Mckinnon PS, Levine DP, Rybak MJ: Predictors of mortality and impact of initial therapy on outcomes in intravenous drug users (IVDU) with Staphylococcus aureus (SA) infective endocarditis (IE) [abstract: L-765]. In 42nd Interscience Conference on Antimcrobial Agents and Chemotherapy (ICAAC) Abstracts, American Society for Microbiology. San Diego: September 27–30, 2002. Cremieux AC, Maziere B, Vallois JM, et al.: Evaluation of antibiotic difussion into cardiac vegetations by quantitative autoradiography. J Infect Dis 1989, 159:938–944. Rybak MJ, Albrecht LM, Berman JR, et al.: Vancomycin pharmacokinetics in burn patients and intravenous drug abusers. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1990, 34:792–795. DiNubile MJ: Short-course antibiotic therapy for right-sided endocarditis caused by Staphylococcus aureus in injection drug users. Ann Intern Med 1994, 121:873–876. Dworkin RJ, Sande MA, Lee BL, Chambers HF: Treatment of right-sided S. aureus endocarditis in intravenous drug abusers with ciprofloxacin and rifampicin. Lancet 1989, 2:1071–1073. Heldman AW, Hartert TV, Ray SC, et al.: Oral antibiotic treatment of right-sided staphylococcal endocarditis in injection drug users: prospective randomized comparison with parenteral therapy. Am J Med 1996, 101:68–76. Alsip SG, Blackstone EH, Kirklin J, Cobbs CG: Indications for cardiac surgery in patients with active infective endocarditis. Am J Med 1985, 78(Suppl 6B):138–148. Petterson G, Carbon C, and the Endocarditis Working Group of the International Society of Chemotherapy: Recommendations for the surgical treatment of endocarditis. Clin Microbiol Infect 1998, 4:3S34–3S46. Paone G, Silverman NA: Cardiac surgery in patients with HIV disease. In Advanced Techniques in Cardiac Surgery. Edited by Franco KL, Verrier ED. New York: BC Decker; 1999:20–24. This chapter analyzes the short-and long-term prognosis of 108 HIV-infected patients who underwent cardiac surgery (1989-1997). Drug abuse was the etiologic factor in 76% of cases. Indications of surgery were IE in 84 patients, other valve diseases in 14, coronary artery disease in seven, and other in three patients. Frater RWM: Surgical management of endocarditis in drug addicts and long-term results. J Cardiac Surg 1990, 5:63–67. Brau N, Esposito RA, Simberkoff MS: Cardiac valve replacement in patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Ann Thorac Surg 1992, 54:552–554. Lemma M, Vanelli P, Beretta L, et al.: Cardiac surgery in HIV-positive intravenous drug addicts: influence of cardiopulmonary bypass on the progression of AIDS. Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1992, 40:279–282. Aris A, Pomar JL, Saura E: Cardiopulmonary bypass in HIV-positive patients. Ann Thorac Surg 1993, 55:1104–1108. Carrel T, Schaffner A, Vogt P, et al.: Endocarditis in intravenous drug addicts and HIV infected patients: possibilities and limitations of surgical treatment. J Heart Val Dis 1993, 2:140–147. Abad C, Cardenes MA, Jiménez PC, et al.: Cardiac surgery in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Tex Heart Inst J 2000, 27:356–360. Mathew J, Abreo G, Namburi K, et al.: Results of surgical treatment for infective endocarditis in intravenous drug users. Chest 1995, 108:73–77. Arbulu A, Holmes RJ, Asfaw I: Surgical treatment of intractable right-sided endocarditis in drug addicts: 25 years’ experience. J Heart Valve Dis 1993, 2:129–137. Mestres CA, Chuquiure J, Claramonte X, et al.: Long-term results after cardiac surgery in patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1). Eur J Cardio Thorac Surg 2003, 23:1007–1016. From this study it was determined that the overall 10-year actuarial survival for all HIV patients undergoing major cardiac surgery is 58%, and in the subgroup of HIV IVDA the survival extends up to 48%. Donaldson RM, Ross DN: Homograft aortic root replacement for complicated prosthetic valve endocarditis. Circulation 1984, 70:1178–1181. Yankah AC, Klose H, Petzina R, et al.: Surgical management of acute aortic root endocarditis with viable homograft. A 13-year experience. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2002, 21:260–267. This is a very important paper providing information on the longterm performance of viable homografts when used for radical treatment of the infected aortic root. Arbulu A, Thoms NW, Chiscano A, Wilson RF: Total tricuspid valvulectomy without replacement in the treatment of Pseudomonas endocarditis. Surg Forum 1971, 22:162–164. Arbulu A, Asfaw I: Tricuspid valvulectomy without prosthetic replacement. Ten years of clinical experience. 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De Vega NG: Selective, adjustable and permanent annuloplasty. An original technique for the treatment of tricuspid insufficiency. Rev Esp Cardiol 1972, 25:555–556. Nakano K, Ishibashi-Ueda H, Kobayashi J, et al.: Tricuspid valve replacement with bioprostheses: long-term results and causes of valve dysfunction. Ann Thorac Surg 2001, 71:105–109. Kaplan M, Kut MS, Demirtas MM, et al.: Prosthetic replacement of tricuspid valve: bioprosthetic or mechanical. Ann Thorac Surg 2002, 73:467–473. Pomar JL, Mestres CA: The role of atrioventricular homograft valves in atrioventricular valve replacement. Asian Cardiovasc Thorac Ann 1996, 4:122–125. Pomar JL, Mestres CA: Tricuspid valve replacement using a mitral homograft. Surgical technique and initial results. J Heart Valve Dis 1993, 2:125–128. Pomar JL, Mestres CA, Paré JC, Miró JM: Management of persistent tricuspid endocarditis with transplantation of cryopreserved mitral homografts. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1994, 107:1460–1463. Mestres CA, Miró JM, Paré JC, Pomar JL: Six-year experience with cryopreserved mitral homografts in the treatment of tricuspid valve endocarditis in HIV-infected drug addicts. J Heart Val Dis 1999, 8:575–577. This report provides information on the mid-term results after tricuspid valve replacement with a cryopreserved mitral homograft. Miyagishima RT, Brumwell ML, Jamieson WRE, Munt BI: Tricuspid valve replacement using a cryopreserved mitral homograft. J Heart Val Dis 2000, 9:805–808. Nahass RB, Weinstein MP, Bartels J, Bocke DJ: Infective endocarditis in intravenous drug users: a comparison of human immunodeficiency virus type 1-negative and -positive patients. J Infect Dis 1990, 162:967–970. Pulvirenti JJ, Kerns E, Benson C, et al.: Infective endocarditis in injection drug users: importance of human immunodeficiency virus serostatus and degree of immunosupression. Clin Infect Dis 1996, 22:40–45. Ribera E, Miró JM, Cortés E, et al.: Influence of human immunodeficiency virus 1 infection an degree of immunosuppression in the clinical characteristics and outcome of infective endocarditis in intravenous drug users. Arch Intern Med 1998, 158:2043–2050. This is the most important article that analyzes the influence of HIV-1 infection and the degree of immunosuppresion in the clinical characteristics and outcome of IE in IVDA. Valencia ME, Guinea J, Soriano V, et al.: Estudio de 164 episodios de endocarditis infecciosa en drogadictos: comparación entre pacientes VIH positivos y negativos. Rev Clin Exp 1994, 194:535–539. Manoff SB, Vlahov D, Herskowitz A, et al.: Human immunodeficiency virus infection and infective endocarditis among injecting drug users. Epidemiology 1996, 7:563–565. Scheidegger C, Zimmerli W: Incidence and spectrum of severe medical complications among hospitalized HIV-seronegative and HIV-seropositive narcotic drug users. AIDS 1996, 10:1407–1414. Wilson LE, Thomas DL, Astemborski J, et al.: Prospective study of infective endocarditis among injection drug users. J Infect Dis 2002, 185:1761–1766. This study showed that IE incidence was higher among HIV-infected than HIV-seronegative IVDA, and multivariate analysis of HIVinfected patients revealed an inverse association between IE and CD4 lymphocyte count. Losa JE, Miró JM, del Rio A, et al.: Infective endocarditis not related to intravenous drug abuse in HIV-1 infected patients: report of eight cases and review of the literature. Clin Microbiol Infect 2003, 9:45–54. This study found that the risk of IE is not increased in HIV-infected patients who do not abuse drugs. Safaeian M, Wilson LE, Taylor E, et al.: HTLV-II and bacterial infections among injection drug users. J Acquir Immun Defic Syndr 2000, 24:483–487. Robinson DJ, Lazo MC, Davis T, Kufera JA: Infective endocarditis in intravenous drug users: does HIV status alter the presenting temperature and white blood cell count? J Emerg Med 2000, 19:5–11. Cicalini S, Forcina G, De Rosa FG: Infective endocarditis in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Infect 2001, 42:267–271.