Material constraints to popular imaginaries: The extractive economy and resource nationalism in Bolivia

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All direct quotes from Spanish are our translations. Quechua and Aymara are the two principal highland and valley languages, and are often perceived as ethnic groups, but in fact the Aymara only coalesced as an ethnic configuration about 200 years ago and the Quechua, while sharing the language imposed by the 14th century Inka Empire, are made up of a plethora of different groups (Rivera Cusicanqui, 2003). In 2009 cooperatives paid about US $14 million royalties on US $364 million—about 4%—of reported production, which does not include the enormous quantities of minerals, primarily gold, that are smuggled out of the country (Boliviapress.com, 2010).