The Representation of Tropospheric Water Vapor Over Low-Latitude Oceans in (Re-)analysis: Errors, Impacts, and the Ability to Exploit Current and Prospective Observations

Abdalla S, Isaksen L, Janssen P, Wedi N (2013) Effective spectral resolution of ECMWF atmospheric forecast models. ECMWF Newslett 137:19–22 Andersson E, Bauer P, Beljaars A, Chevallier F et al (2005) Assimilation and modeling of the atmospheric hydrological cycle in the ECMWF forecasting system. Bull Am Meteorol Soc 86(3):387 Anthes RA (2011) Exploring Earth’s atmosphere with radio occultation: contributions to weather, climate, and space weather. Atmos Meas Tech 4(6):1077–1103 August T, Klaes D, Schlüssel P, Hultberg T, Crapeau M, Arriaga A, O’Carroll A, Coppens D, Munro R, Calbet X (2012) IASI on Metop-A: operational Level 2 retrievals after five years in orbit. J Quant Spectrosc Radiat Transf 113(11):1340–1371 Aumann HH, Chahine MT, Gautier C, Goldberg MD, Kalnay E, McMillin LM, Revercomb H, Rosenkranz PW, Smith WL, Staelin DH, Strow LL, Susskind J (2003) AIRS/AMSU/HSB on the aqua mission: design, science objectives, data products, and processing systems. IEEE Trans Geosci Remote Sens 41(2):253–264 Bauer P, Geer AJ, Lopez P, Salmond D (2010) Direct 4D-Var assimilation of all-sky radiances. Part I: implementation. Q J R Meteorol Soc 136(652):1868–1885 Bodeker GE, Bojinski S, Cimini D, Dirksen RJ, Haeffelin M, Hannigan JW, Hurst DF, Leblanc T, Madonna F, Maturilli M, Mikalsen AC, Philipona R, Reale T, Seidel DJ, Tan DGH, Thorne PW, Vömel H, Wang J (2016) Reference upper-air observations for climate: from concept to reality. Bull Am Meteorol Soc 97(1):123–135 Bretherton CS, Uttal T, Fairall CW, Yuter SE, Weller RA, Baumgardner D, Comstock K, Wood R, Raga GB (2004) The EPIC 2001 stratocumulus study. Bull Am Meteorol Soc 85(7):967–977 Bretherton CS, Blossey PN, Khairoutdinov M (2005) An energy-balance analysis of deep convective self-aggregation above uniform SST. J Atmos Sci 62(12):4273–4292 Brogniez H, Kirstetter PE, Eymard L (2013) Expected improvements in the atmospheric humidity profile retrieval using the Megha-Tropiques microwave payload. Q J R Meteorol Soc 139(673):842–851 Buehler SA, John VO (2005) A simple method to relate microwave radiances to upper tropospheric humidity. J Geophys Res 110(D2):D02,110 Buehler SA, Kuvatov M, John VO, Leiterer U, Dier H (2004) Comparison of microwave satellite humidity data and radiosonde profiles: a case study. J Geophys Res 109:D13103. doi:10.1029/2004JD004605 Clerbaux C, Boynard A, Clarisse L, George M, Hadji-Lazaro J, Herbin H, Hurtmans D, Pommier M, Razavi A, Turquety S, Wespes C, Coheur PF (2009) Monitoring of atmospheric composition using the thermal infrared IASI/MetOp sounder. Atmos Chem Phys 9(16):6041–6054 Dee DP, Uppala S (2009) Variational bias correction of satellite radiance data in the ERA-Interim reanalysis. Q J R Meteorol Soc 135(644):1830–1841 Dee DP, Uppala SM, Simmons AJ, Berrisford P, Poli P, Kobayashi S, Andrae U, Balmaseda MA, Balsamo G, Bauer P, Bechtold P, Beljaars ACM, van de Berg L, Bidlot J, Bormann N, Delsol C, Dragani R, Fuentes M, Geer AJ, Haimberger L, Healy SB, Hersbach H, Hólm EV, Isaksen L, Kållberg P, Köhler M, Matricardi M, McNally AP, Monge-Sanz BM, Morcrette JJ, Park BK, Peubey C, de Rosnay P, Tavolato C, Thepaut JN, Vitart F (2011) The ERA-Interim reanalysis: configuration and performance of the data assimilation system. Q J R Meteorol Soc 137(656):553–597 Edwards JM, Slingo A (1996) Studies with a flexible new radiation code. I: choosing a configuration for a large-scale model. Q J R Meteorol Soc 122(531):689–719 Eriksson P, Buehler SA, Davis CP, Emde C, Lemke O (2011) ARTS, the atmospheric radiative transfer simulator, version 2. J Quant Spectrosc Radiat Transf 112(10):1551–1558 Eyre JR, Kelly GA, McNally AP, Andersson E, Persson A (1993) Assimilation of TOVS radiance information through one-dimensional variational analysis. Q J R Meteorol Soc 119(514):1427–1463 Geer AJ, Bauer P, Lopez P (2010) Direct 4D-Var assimilation of all-sky radiances. Part II: assessment. Q J R Meteorol Soc 136(652):1886–1905 Gorbunov ME, Benzon H-H, Jensen AS, Lohmann MS, Nielsen AS (2004) Comparative analysis of radio occultation processing approaches based on Fourier integral operators. Radio Sci 39:RS6004. doi:10.1029/2003RS002916 Hajj GA, Kursinski ER, Romans LJ, Bertiger WI, Leroy SS (2002) A technical description of atmospheric sounding by GPS occultation. J Atmos Solar Terr Phys 64(4):451–469 Healy SB, Thepaut JN (2006) Assimilation experiments with CHAMP GPS radio occultation measurements. Q J R Meteorol Soc 132(615):605–623 Herbin H, Hurtmans D, Clerbaux C, Clarisse L, Coheur PF (2009) H\(_{2}^{16}\)O and HDO measurements with IASI/MetOp. Atmos Chem Phys 9(24):9433–9447 Ho SP, Hunt D, Steiner AK, Mannucci AJ, Kirchengast G, Gleisner H, Heise S, von Engeln A, Marquardt C, Sokolovskiy S, Schreiner W, Scherllin-Pirscher B, Ao C, Wickert J, Syndergaard S, Lauritsen K, Leroy S, Kursinski ER, Kuo YH, Foelsche U, Schmidt T, Gorbunov M (2012) Reproducibility of GPS radio occultation data for climate monitoring: profile-to-profile inter-comparison of CHAMP climate records 2002 to 2008 from six data centers. J Geophys Res 117:D18111. doi:10.1029/2012JD017665 Ho SP, Peng L, Anthes RA, Kuo YH, Lin HC (2015) Marine boundary layer heights and their longitudinal, diurnal, and interseasonal variability in the southeastern pacific using COSMIC, CALIOP, and radiosonde data. J Climate 28(7):2856–2872 Hólm E, Andersson E, Beljaars A, Lopez P, Mahfouf JF, Simmons A, Thepaut JN (2002) Assimilation and modelling of the hydrological cycle: ECWMF’s status and plans. Tech Memo 383:1–55 Immler FJ, Dykema J, Gardiner T, Whiteman DN, Thorne PW, Vömel H (2010) Reference quality upper-air measurements: guidance for developing GRUAN data products. Atmos Meas Tech 3(5):1217–1231 John VO, Holl G, Allan RP, Buehler SA, Parker DE, Soden BJ (2011) Clear-sky biases in satellite infrared estimates of upper tropospheric humidity and its trends. J Geophys Res 116(D14):1491 Kalman RE (1960) A new approach to linear filtering and prediction problems. Trans ASME J Basic Eng 82(Series D):35–45 Kalman RE, Bucy RS (1961) New results in linear filtering and prediction theory. Trans ASME J Basic Eng 83(Series D):95–108 Kalnay E (2003) Atmospheric modeling, data assimilation and predictability. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Kanamitsu M, Ebisuzaki W, Woollen J, Yang SK, Hnilo JJ, Fiorino M, Potter GL (2002) NCEP–DOE AMIP-II reanalysis (R-2). Bull Am Meteorol Soc 83(11):1631–1643 Kiemle C, Groß S, Wirth M, Bugliaro L (2017) Airborne lidar observations of water vapor variability in tropical shallow convective environment. Surv Geophys. doi:10.1007/s10712-017-9431-5 Kirchengast G, Schweitzer S (2011) Climate benchmark profiling of greenhouse gases and thermodynamic structure and wind from space. Geophys Res Lett 38(13):L13,701 Klaes KD, Cohen M, Buhler Y, Schlüssel P, Munro R, Engeln A, Clérigh E, Bonekamp H, Ackermann J, Schmetz J, Luntama JP (2007) An introduction to the EUMETSAT polar system. Bull Am Meteorol Soc 88(7):1085–1096 Klein SA, Hall A, Norris JR, Pincus R (2017) Low-cloud feedbacks from cloud-controlling factors: a review. Surv Geophys. doi:10.1007/s10712-017-9433-3 Kleist DT, Ide K (2015) An OSSE-based evaluation of hybrid variational-ensemble data assimilation for the NCEP GFS. Part I: system description and 3D-hybrid results. Mon Weather Rev 143(2):433–451 Klinker E, Sardeshmukh PD (1992) The diagnosis of mechanical dissipation in the atmosphere from large-scale balance requirements. J Atmos Sci 49(7):608–627 Kobayashi S, Ota Y, Harada Y, Ebita A, Moriya M, Onoda H, Onogi K, Kamahori H, Kobayashi C, Endo H, Miyaoka K, Takahashi K (2015) The JRA-55 reanalysis: general specifications and basic characteristics. J Meteorol Soc Japan 93(1):5–48 Kursinski ER, Gebhardt T (2014) A method to deconvolve errors in GPS RO-derived water vapor histograms. J Atmos Ocean Technol 31(12):2606–2628 Kursinski ER, Hajj GA, Schofield JT, Linfield RP, Hardy KR (1997) Observing earth’s atmosphere with radio occultation measurements using the global positioning system. J Geophys Res 102(D19):23,429–23,465 Kursinski ER, Syndergaard S, Flittner D, Feng D, Hajj GA, Herman B, Ward D, Yunck TP (2002) A microwave occultation observing system optimized to characterize atmospheric water, temperature, and geopotential via absorption. J Atmos Ocean Technol 19(12):1897–1914 Lacour JL, Risi C, Clarisse L, Bony S, Hurtmans D, Clerbaux C, Coheur PF (2012) Mid-tropospheric \(\delta\)D observations from IASI/MetOp at high spatial and temporal resolution. Atmos Chem Phys 12(22):10,817–10,832 Ladstädter F, Steiner AK, Schwärz M, Kirchengast G (2015) Climate intercomparison of GPS radio occultation, RS90/92 radiosondes and GRUAN from 2002 to 2013. Atmos Meas Tech 8(4):1819–1834 Lebsock et al (this issue) An observational view of radiation-circulation feedbacks on convective aggregation. Surv Geophy (in press) Liao M, Zhang P, Yang GL, Bi YM, Liu Y, Bai WH, Meng XG, Du QF, Sun YQ (2016) Preliminary validation of the refractivity from the new radio occultation sounder GNOS/FY-3C. Atmos Meas Tech 9(2):781–792 Liu CL, Kirchengast G, Syndergaard S, Kursinski ER, Sun YQ, Bai WH, Du QF (2017) A review of low Earth orbit occultation using microwave and infrared-laser signals for monitoring the atmosphere and climate. Adv Space Res. doi:10.1016/j.asr.2017.05.011 Mapes B, Chandra AS, Kuang Z, Zuidema P (2017) Importance profiles for water vapor. Surv Geophys. doi:10.1007/s10712-017-9427-1 Mears CA, Wang J, Smith D, Wentz FJ (2015) Intercomparison of total precipitable water measurements made by satellite-borne microwave radiometers and ground-based GPS instruments. J Geophys Res 120(6):2492–2504 Nehrir AR, Kiemle C, Lebsock MD, Kirchengast G, Buehler SA, Löhnert U, Liu C-L, Hargrave P, Barrera-Verdejo M, Winker D (2017) Emerging technologies and synergies for airborne and space-based measurements of water vapor profiles. Surv Geophys. doi:10.1007/s10712-017-9436-0 Osher S, Burger M, Goldfarb D, Xu J, Yin W (2005) An iterative regularization method for total variation-based image restoration. Multiscale Model Simul 4(2):460–489 Parker WS (2016) Reanalyses and observations: what’s the difference? Bull Am Meteorol Soc 97(9):1565–1572 Rieckh T, Anthes R, Randel W, Ho S-P, Foelsche U (2016) Tropospheric dry layers in the Tropical Western Pacific: Comparisons of GPS radio occultation with multiple data sets. Atmos Meas Tech 10:1093–1110. doi:10.5194/amt-10-1093-2017 Rodwell MJ, Palmer TN (2007) Using numerical weather prediction to assess climate models. Quart J R Meterol Soc 133(622):129–146 Schmetz J, Pili P, Tjemkes S, Just D, Kerkmann J, Rota S, Ratier A (2002) An introduction to meteosat second generation (MSG). Bull Am Meteorol Soc 83(7):977–992 Schneider M, Hase F (2011) Optimal estimation of tropospheric H\(_{2}\)O and \(\delta\)D with IASI/METOP. Atmos Chem Phys 11(21):11,207–11,220 Schreiner WS, Rocken C, Sokolovskiy S, Hunt D (2009) Quality assessment of COSMIC/FORMOSAT-3 GPS radio occultation data derived from single- and double-difference atmospheric excess phase processing. GPS Solut 14(1):13–22 Shi L, Bates JJ (2011) Three decades of intersatellite-calibrated High-Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder upper tropospheric water vapor. J Geophys Res 116(D4):D04,108 Sokolovskiy S, Schreiner W, Zeng Z, Hunt D, Lin YC, Kuo YH (2014) Observation, analysis, and modeling of deep radio occultation signals: effects of tropospheric ducts and interfering signals. Radio Sci 49(10):954–970 Steiner AK, Lackner BC, Ladstädter F, Scherllin-Pirscher B, Foelsche U, Kirchengast G (2011) GPS radio occultation for climate monitoring and change detection. Radio Sci 46(6):115 Steiner AK, Hunt D, Ho SP, Kirchengast G, Mannucci AJ, Scherllin-Pirscher B, Gleisner H, von Engeln A, Schmidt T, Ao C, Leroy SS, Kursinski ER, Foelsche U, Gorbunov M, Heise S, Kuo YH, Lauritsen KB, Marquardt C, Rocken C, Schreiner W, Sokolovskiy S, Syndergaard S, Wickert J (2013) Quantification of structural uncertainty in climate data records from GPS radio occultation. Atmos Chem Phys 13(3):1469–1484 Stevens B, Farrell D, Hirsch L, Jansen F, Nuijens L, Serikov I, Brügmann B, Forde M, Linne H, Lonitz K, Prospero JM (2016) The barbados cloud observatory: anchoring investigations of clouds and circulation on the edge of the ITCZ. Bull Am Meteorol Soc 97(5):787–801 Stevens B, Brogniez H, Kiemle C, Lacour JL, Crevoisier C, Kiliani J (2017) Structure and dynamical influence of water vapor in the lower tropical troposphere. Surv Geophys 105(3):270 Tobin I, Bony S, Roca R (2012) Observational evidence for relationships between the degree of aggregation of deep convection, water vapor, surface fluxes, and radiation. J Clim 25(20):6885–6904 Trenberth KE, Fasullo JT, Mackaro J (2011) Atmospheric moisture transports from ocean to land and global energy flows in reanalyses. J Clim 24(18):4907–4924 Uppala SM, Kållberg PW, Simmons AJ, Andrae U, Bechtold Vd, Fiorino M, Gibson JK, Haseler J, Hernandez A, Kelly GA et al (2005) The ERA-40 re-analysis. Q J R Meteorol Soc 131(612):2961–3012 Vial J, Bony S, Stevens B, Vogel R (2017) Mechanisms and model diversity of trade-wind shallow cumulus cloud feedbacks: a review. Surv Geophys 36(1):73 Wang X, Parrish D, Kleist D, Whitaker J (2013) GSI 3DVar-based ensemble-variational hybrid data assimilation for NCEP global forecast system: single-resolution experiments. Mon Weathr Rev 141(11):4098–4117 Wing AA, Emanuel K, Holloway CE, Muller C (2017) Convective self-aggregation in numerical simulations: a review. Surv Geophys 27(32):4391 Xie F, Wu DL, Ao CO, Mannucci AJ, Kursinski ER (2012) Advances and limitations of atmospheric boundary layer observations with GPS occultation over southeast Pacific Ocean. Atmos Chem Phys 12(2):903–918