Ecosystem approach for natural hazard mitigation of volcanic tephra in Iceland: building resilience and sustainability
Tóm tắt
Từ khóa
Tài liệu tham khảo
Ágústsdóttir AM (2013) Gróður og eldgosavá. Forvarnagildi gróðurs gegn hamförum af völdum eldgosa og eldfjallagjósku. Skýrsla til nefndar um gerð hættumats vegna eldvirkni. [Vegetation and volcanic eruptions. Ecosystem- based Disaster Risk Reduction (Eco-DRR). Report for risk assessment regarding volcanic eruptions in Iceland] Rit Landgræðslu ríkisins nr 1/2013 1:66
Alley RB (2000) The two-mile time machine: ice cores, abrupt climate change, and our future. Princeton University Press, Princeton
Anderson M (1990) Analyzing the costs and benefits of natural disaster responses in the context of development. Environment Working Paper 29, World Bank, Washington
Antos JA, Zobel DB (1985) Recovery of forest understories buried by tephra from Mount St. Helens. Vegetatio 64:103–111
Arnalds O, Thórarinsdóttir EF, Metúsalemsson S, Jónsson Á, Grétarsson E, Árnason A (2001) Soil erosion in Iceland. Soil Conservation Service, Agriculture Research Institute, Reykjavík English translation, originally published in Icelandic (1997)
Arnalds O, Thorarinsdottir EF, Thorsson J, Waldhauserova PD, Agustsdottir AM (2013) An extreme wind erosion event of the fresh Eyjafjallajokull 2010 volcanic ash. Sci Rep 3:7. doi: 10.1038/srep01257
Aubault H, Webb NP, Strong CL, McTainsh GH, Leys JF, Scanlan JC (2015) Grazing impacts on the susceptibility of rangelands to wind erosion: the effects of stocking rate, stocking strategy and land condition. Aeolian Res 17:89–99. doi: 10.1016/j.aeolia.2014.12.005
Bignami C, Bosi V, Costantini L, Cristiani C, Lavigne F, Thierry P (2012) Handbook for volcanic risk management: prevention, crisis management, resilience. MIAVITA Project—European Commission under the 7th Framework Programme for Research and Technological Development, Orleans
Birkmann J et al (2008) Extreme events and disasters: a window of opportunity for change? Analysis of organizational, institutional and political changes, formal and informal responses after mega-disasters. Nat Hazards 55:637–655
Birkmann J et al (2013) Framing vulnerability, risk and societal responses: the MOVE framework. Nat Hazards 67:193–211. doi: 10.1007/s11069-013-0558-5
Bitschene P (1995) Environmental impact and hazard assessment of the August 1991 eruption of Mt. Hudson (Patagonian Andes). In: Bitschene P, Mendia J (eds) The August 1991 eruption of the Hudson volcano (Patagonian Andes): a thousand days after. Cuvillier Verlag, Universidad Nacional de la Patagonia San Juan Bosco, Göttingen, pp 2–15
Bjarnason T (2010) Demographics, transportation and settlement development. Part of the 2020—moving Iceland forward initiative November 2010. The Prime Minister’s Office, University of Akureyri. http://www.forsaetisraduneyti.is/verkefni/soknaraaetlun-2020/landshlutar/mannfjoldi/ . 2013
Boyd WE, Lentfer CJ, Parr J (2005) Interactions between human activity, volcanic eruptions and vegetation during the Holocene at Garua and Numundo, West New Britain. PNG Quat Res 64:384–398
Braun J, Gerber N, Mirzabaev A, Nkonya E (2012) The Economics of land degradation. An issue paper for global soil week, Berlin 18–22 Nov 2012. Center for Development Research (ZEF), University of Bonn, International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Washington and Berlin
Breshears DD, Whicker JJ, Zou CB, Field JP, Allen CD (2009) A conceptual framework for dryland aeolian sediment transport along the grassland-forest continuum: Effects of woody plant canopy cover and disturbance. Geomorphology 105:28–38. doi: 10.1016/j.geomorph.2007.12.018
Burylo M, Rey F, Dutoit T (2012) Responses of five woody species to burial by marly sediment: the role of biomass allocation pattern flexibility J. Plant Ecol 5:287–293. doi: 10.1093/jpe/rtr030
Carey RJ, Houghton BF, Thordarson T (2010) Tephra dispersal and eruption dynamics of wet and dry phases of the 1875 eruption of Askja Volcano. Iceland Bull Volcanol 72:259–278
Carlsen HK et al (2012) Health effects following the Eyjafjallajökull volcanic eruption: a cohort study. BMJ Open 2. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2012-001851
CBD (2009) Connecting biodiversity and climate change mitigation and adaptation: report of the second ad hoc technical expert group on biodiversity and climate change. Technical series no. 41. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Montreal
Cook R, Barron J, Papendick R, Williams GI (1981) Impact on agriculture of the Mount St. Helens eruptions. Science 211:16–22
Costanza R (1992) Toward an operational definition of ecosystem health. In: Costanza R, Norton B, Haskell BJ (eds) Ecosystem health: New goals for environmental management. Island Press, Washington, pp 239–256
Costanza R (2012) Ecosystem health and ecological engineering. Ecol Eng 45:24–29. doi: 10.1016/j.ecoleng.2012.03.023
De Groot RS, Blignaut J, van der Ploeg S, Aronson J, Elmqvist T, Farley J (2013) Benefits of investing in ecosystem restoration. Conserv Biol 27:1286–1293. doi: 10.1111/cobi.12158
Doswald N et al (2014) Effectiveness of ecosystem-based approaches for adaptation: review of the evidence-base. Clim Dev 6:185–201. doi: 10.1080/17565529.2013.867247
Dugmore AJ, Church MJ, Mairs K-A, McGovern TH, Perdikaris S, Vésteinsson O (2007) Abandoned farms, volcanic impacts, and Woodland management: revisiting Þjórsárdalur, the “Pompeii Of Iceland”. Arct Anthropol 44:1–11. doi: 10.3368/aa.44.1.1
EAI (2013) Measurements of air quality by the Environment Agency of Iceland. Umhverfisstofnun Íslands. http://www.ust.is/einstaklingar/loftgaedi/maelingar/ . Accessed 20. March 2013
EEA (2010) Mapping the impacts of natural hazards and technological accidents in Europe—an overview of the last decade. EEA, Copenhagen. doi: 10.2800/62638
Einarsson MÁ (1976) Climate of Iceland. Iðunn, Reykjavík, In Icelandic (Veðurfar á Íslandi)
Eliasson J, Larsen G, Gudmundsson MT, Sigmundsson F (2006) Probabilistic model for eruptions and associated flood events in the Katla caldera. Iceland Comput Geosci 10:179–200. doi: 10.1007/s10596-005-9018-y
El-Masri S, Tipple G (2002) Natural disaster. Mitigation and sustainability: The case of developing countries. Int Plan Stud 7:157–175. doi: 10.1080/1356347022013223
Engelstaedter S, Kohfeld KE, Tegen I, Harrison SP (2003) Controls of dust emissions by vegetation and topographic depressions: an evaluation using dust storm frequency data. Geophys Res Lett 30:4. doi: 10.1029/2002GL016471
Environment Agency of Iceland (2012) Emissions of greenhouse gases in Iceland from 1990 to 2010. National Inventory Report 2012. Submitted under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol. Environment Agency of Iceland, Reykjavík
Eurocontrol (2010) Ash-cloud of April and May 2010: Impact on Air Traffic STATFOR/Doc394. Eurocontrol, Brussels
European Commission (2011) Study on the impacts of the developments of certain aspects of EU disaster risk management. Final report. European Commission, Directorate-General for Humanitarian Aid and Civil Protection (ECHO), Strasbourg
European Commission (2013) Green paper on the insurance of natural and man-made disasters vol COM(2013) 213 final European Commission, Strasbourg
Feagin RA et al (2010) Shelter from the storm? Use and misuse of coastal vegetation bioshields for managing natural disasters. Conserv Lett 3:1–11. doi: 10.1111/j.1755-263X.2009.00087.x
Folke C, Carpenter S, Walker B, Scheffer M, Elmqvist T, Gunderson L, Holling CS (2004) Regime shifts, resilience, and biodiversity in ecosystem management. Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst 35:557–581. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.35.021103.105711
Fridriksson S (1981) Effect of tephra on vegetation. (In Icelandic: Áhrif gjósku á gróður) Ráðunautafundur 1981 2:174–177
Fridriksson S, Sigurðsson FH (1983) The effect of air-temperature on grass growth (In icelandic: Áhrif lofthita á grassprettu). J Icel Agric Res 15:41–54
Grandy S, Fraterrigo JM, Billings SA (2012) Soil ecosystem resilience and recovery. In: Wall DH et al (eds) Soil ecology and ecosystem services. Oxford University Press, Oxford. doi: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199575923.003.0031
Gudmundsson G (2011) Respiratory health effects of volcanic ash with special reference to Iceland. A review. Clin Respir J 5:2–9
Gudmundsson MT, Larsen G, Höskuldsson Á, Gylfason ÁG (2008) Volcanic hazards in Iceland. Jokull 58:251–268
Gudmundsson MT et al (2012) Ash generation and distribution from the April-May 2010 eruption of Eyjafjallajökull. Iceland Sci Rep. doi: 10.1038/srep00572
Gudmundsson A, Lecoeur N et al (2014) Dike emplacement at Bardarbunga, Iceland, induces unusual stress changes, caldera deformation, and earthquakes. Bull Volcanol 76(10):7
Gunnarsson KS, Eysteinsson T, Curl SL, Thorfinnssont T (2005) Forest Sector Entrepreneurship in Europe: Country Studies. Iceland Acta Silvatica et Lignaria Hungarica Spec Ed 2005:335–346
Haflidason H, Eiriksson J, Kreveld SV (2000) The tephrochronology of Iceland and the North Atlantic region during the middle and late quaternary: a review. J Quat Sci 15:3–22
Hagen LJ, Casada ME (2013) Effect of canopy leaf distribution on sand transport and abrasion energy. Aeolian Res 10:37–42. doi: 10.1016/j.aeolia.2013.01.005
Hallsdóttir M, Caseldine CJ (2005) The Holocene vegetation history of Iceland, state of the art and future research. In: Caseldine C, Russel A, Harðardóttir J, Knudsen Ó (eds) Iceland—modern processes and past environments. Developments in quaternary science. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 319–334. doi: 10.1016/S1571-0866(05)80016-8
Hansell AL, Horwell CJ, Oppenheimer C (2006) The health hazards of volcanoes and geothermal areas. Occup Environ Med 63:149–156. doi: 10.1136/oem.2005.022459
Hekluskógar (2015) The Mt. Hekla afforestation project. Hekluskógar. http://hekluskogar.is/ . Accessed 2015
Hodell DA, Curtis JH, Brenner M (1995) Possible role of climate in the collapse of Classic Maya civilization. Nature 375:391–394
Horwell CJ, Baxter PJ (2006) The respiratory health hazards of volcanic ash: a review for volcanic risk mitigation. Bull Volcanol 69:1–24. doi: 10.1007/s00445-006-0052-y
IMO (2011) Hættumat fyrir eldgos. The Icelandic Meteorological Office. http://www.vedur.is/um-vi/frettir/nr/2278 . Accessed 31 Aug 2012
IMO (2014) 100 days of continuous eruptive activity in Holuhraun. Icelandic Met Office. http://en.vedur.is/media/jar/bb100days_ens.pdf
Johnson C (2011) Creating an enabling environment for reducing disaster risk: recent experience of regulatory frameworks for land, planning and building in low and middle-income countries., Background paper prepared for the, 2011. Global assessment report on disaster risk reductionUNISDR, Geneva
Jones HP, Hole DG, Zavaleta ES (2012) Harnessing nature to help people adapt to climate change. Nat Clim Change 2:504–509. doi: 10.1038/nclimate1463
Jónsson T (1990) Hvert liggja gjóskugeirar? Nátt 60:103–105
Jónsson T (2010) Hvert berst gosaska? Veðurstofa Ísland/Icelandic Met Office. http://www.vedur.is/vedur/frodleikur/greinar/nr/1866
Kelman I, Mather TA (2008) Living with volcanoes: the sustainable livelihoods approach for volcano-related opportunities. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 172:189–198. doi: 10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2007.12.007
Lacasse C (2001) Influence of climate variability on the atmospheric transport of Icelandic tephra in the subpolar North Atlantic. Glob Planet Change 29:31–55. doi: 10.1016/s0921-8181(01)00099-6
Lähde A et al (2013) In vitro evaluation of pulmonary deposition of airborne volcanic ash. Atmos Environ 70:18–27. doi: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.12.048
Laliberte E et al (2010) Land-use intensification reduces functional redundancy and response diversity in plant communities. Ecol Lett 13:76–86. doi: 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01403.x
Larsen G (2000) Holocene eruptions within the Katla volcanic system, south Iceland: Characteristics and environmental impact. Jokull 49:1–28
Larsen G, Gíslason SR (2013) Gjóska. In: Sólnes J, Sigmundsson F, Bessason B (eds) Náttúruvá á Íslandi—Eldgos og jarðskjálftar. Viðlagatrygging Íslands/Háskólaútgáfan, Reykjavík, pp 130–143
Larsen G, Gudmundsson MT, Björnsson H (1998) Eight centuries of periodic volcanism at the centre of the Icelandic hotspot revealed by glacier tephrostratigraphy. Geology 26:943–946
Larsen DJ, Miller GH, Geirsdottir A, Thordarson T (2011) A 3000-year varved record of glacier activity and climate change from the proglacial lake Hvitarvatn. Iceland Quat Sci Rev 30:2715–2731. doi: 10.1016/j.quascirev.2011.05.026
Larsen DJ, Miller GH, Geirsdottir A, Olafsdottir S (2012) Non-linear Holocene climate evolution in the North Atlantic: a high-resolution, multi-proxy record of glacier activity and environmental change from Hvitarvatn, central Iceland. Quat Sci Rev 39:14–25. doi: 10.1016/j.quascirev.2012.02.006
Lavorel S, Garnier E (2002) Predicting changes in community composition and ecosystem functioning from plant traits: revisiting the Holy Grail. Funct Ecol 16:545–556. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2435.2002.00664.x
Lindig-Cisneros R, Galindo-Vallejo S, Lara-Cabrera S (2006) Vegetation of tephra deposits 50 years after the end of the eruption of the Paricutin Volcano, Mexico. Southwest Nat 51:455–461. doi: 10.1894/0038-4909(2006)51[455:votdya]2.0.co;2
Map Viewer, IS 50 V (2013) National land survey of Iceland (Landmælingar Íslands). http://atlas.lmi.is/is50v/
Marzano FS, Lamantea M, Montopoli M, Herzog M, Graf H, Cimini D (2013) Microwave remote sensing of the 2011 Plinian eruption of the Grímsvötn Icelandic volcano. Remote Sens Environ 129:168–184. doi: 10.1016/j.rse.2012.11.005
Maun MA (2004) Burial of plants as a selective force in sand dunes. In: Martinez ML, Psuty NP (eds) Coastal dunes, ecology and conservation, vol 171. Ecological studies. Springer, Berlin, pp 119–135. doi: 10.1007/978-3-540-74002-5_8
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) Ecosystems and human well-being: synthesis. Island Press, Washington, DC
Ministry for the Environment (2007) Vernd og endurheimt íslenskra birkiskóga. Skýrsla og tillögur nefndar. (Protection and restoration of Icelandic birch forests). Reykjavik, Iceland
Mitchell JK (2006) The primacy of partnership: scoping a new national disaster recovery policy. Ann Am Acad Polit Soc Sci 604:228–255. doi: 10.1177/00027162052s86044
Mitchell T, Jones L, Lovell E, Comba E (eds) (2013) Disaster risk management in post-2015 development goals: potential targets and indicators. Overseas Development Institute, London
Mori AS, Furukawa T, Sasaki T (2013) Response diversity determines the resilience of ecosystems to environmental change. Biol Rev 88:349–364. doi: 10.1111/brv.12004
Munang R, Thiaw I, Alverson K, Liu J, Han Z (2013) The role of ecosystem services in climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction. Curr Opin Environ Sustain 5:47–52. doi: 10.1016/j.cosust.2013.02.002
National Land Survey of Iceland (2009) CLC2006, CLC2000 and CLC-Changes in ICELAND. Final report national land survey of Iceland/Landmælingar Íslands
NCIP-DCPEM (2005a) Almannavarnir og áfallaþol íslensks samfélags. Skýrsla almannavarnaráðs. National Commissioner of the Icelandic Police Department of Civil Protection and Emergency Management, Reykjavík
NCIP-DCPEM (2005b) Hættumat vegna eldgosa og hlaupa frá vestanverðum Mýrdalsjökli og Eyjafjallajökli (In icelandic). National Commissioner of the Icelandic Police Department of Civil Protection and Emergency Management, Háskólaútgáfan, Reykjavík
Nkonya E et al (2011) The economics of land degradation—towards an integrated global assessment, vol 66., Development economics and policyPeter Lang, Frankfurt am Main, Berlin, Bern, Bruxelles, New York, Oxford, Wien
Nytjaland, Icelandic Farmland Database (2013) Agricultural University of Iceland. http://groa.rala.is/Kortavefsja/default.aspx . Accessed 2013
OECD (2009) Farmland Conversion—the spatial implications of agricultural and land-use policies. OECD, Paris
OECD (2010) Agricultural policies and rural development: A synthesis of recent OECD work. OECD, Paris
Óladóttir BA, Larsen G, Sigmarsson O (2011) Holocene volcanic activity at Grímsvötn Bárdarbunga and Kverkfjöll subglacial centres beneath Vatnajökull. Iceland Bull Volcanol 73:1187–1208
Olgeirsson FG (2007) Sáðmenn sandanna: Saga landgræðslu á Íslandi 1907-2007. Landgræðsla ríkisins, Gunnarsholt
PEDRR (2010) Demonstrating the Role of Ecosystems-based Management for Disaster Risk Reduction. Background paper to the 2011 Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction
Prime Minister’s Office (2011) Ríkisstjórnin samþykkir fjárveitingar vegna fyrstu aðgerða í kjölfar eldgossins í Grímsvötnum. News, 10.6.2011. http://www.forsaetisraduneyti.is/frettir/nr/6806 . Accessed 27.mars 2012
ProAct Network (2008) The role of environmental management and eco-engineering in disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation. Ministry of the Environment, Finland, UN International Strategy for Disaster Reduction, Gaia Group
Renaud FG, Sudmeier-Rieux K, Estrella M (eds) (2013) The role of ecosystems in disaster risk reduction. United Nations University Press, Tokyo–New York–Paris
Scheffer M, Carpenter S, Foley JA, Folke C, Walker B (2001) Catastrophic shifts in ecosystems. Nature 413:591–596
Schmidt A, Ostro B, Carslaw KS, Wilson M, Thordarson T, Mann GW, Simmons AJ (2011) Excess mortality in Europe following a future Laki-style Icelandic eruption. PNAS 108:15710–15715
Self S (2006) The effects and consequences of very large explosive volcanic eruptions. Phil Trans R Soc A 364:2073–2097
Shao Y (2000) Physics and modelling of wind erosion. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht
Shinoda M, Gillies JA, Mikami M, Shao Y (2011) Temperate grasslands as a dust source: knowledge, uncertainties, and challenges. Aeolian Res 3:271–293
Sidle RC, Benson WH, Carriger JF, Kamai T (2013) Broader perspective on ecosystem sustainability: consequences for decision making. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 110:9201–9208. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1302328110
Sigmundsson F, Pinel V, Lund B, Albino F, Pagli C, Geirsson H, Sturkell E (2010) Climate effects on volcanism: influence on magmatic systems of loading and unloading from ice mass variations with examples from Iceland. Phil Trans R Soc A 368:2519–2534. doi: 10.1098/rsta.2010.0042
Sigmundsson F, Hooper A et al (2015) Segmented lateral dyke growth in a rifting event at Bardarbunga volcanic system, Iceland. Nature 517(7533):191–195
Snæbjörnsson A, Hjartardóttir D, Blöndal E, Pétursson JG, Eggertsson Ó, Halldórsson Ó (2010) Skýrsla nefndar um landnotkun - Athugun á notkun og varðveislu ræktanlegs lands. Ministry of Fisheries and Agriculture, Reykjavík
Snævar S (1993) Haglýsing Íslands (economic description of Iceland). Heimskringla, Háskólaforlag Máls og menningar, Reykjavík
Steingrímsson J (1998) Fires of the Earth: the Laki eruption 1783–1784. University of Iceland Press, Reykjavík
Sudmeier-Rieux K, Ash N (2009) Environmental guidance note for disaster risk reduction: healthy ecosystems for human security. Revised Edition. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland
Swindles GT, Lawson IT, Savov IP, Connor CB, Plunkett G (2011) A 7000 years perspective on volcanic ash clouds affecting northern Europe. Geology 39:887–890. doi: 10.1130/G32146.1
Tegen I, Harrison SP, Kohfeld K, Prentice IC, Coe M, Heimann M (2002) Impact of vegetation and preferential source areas on global dust aerosol: results from a model study. J Geophys Res-Atmos 107:36. doi: 10.1029/2001JD000963
Thorarinsson S (1958) The Öræfajökull eruption of 1362 Acta naturalia Islandica II:1–100
Thorarinsson S (1967) The eruptions of Hekla in historical times. The Eruption of Hekla 1947–1948 I. Societas Scientiarum Islandica, Reykjavik, pp 1–170
Thorarinsson S (1975) Katla og annáll Kötlugosa (Katla and its historical eruptions) Árbók Ferðafélags Íslands 1975:125–149
Thorarinsson S (1979) On the damage caused by volcanic eruptions with special reference to tephra and gases. In: Sheets PD, Grayson DK (eds) Volcanic activity and human ecology. Academic Press, New York, pp 125–159
Thordarson T, Larsen G (2007) Volcanism in Iceland in historical time: volcano types, eruption styles and eruptive history. J Geodyn 43:118–152
Thordarson T, Self S (1993) The Laki (Skaftár Fires) and Grímsvötn eruptions in 1783–1785. Bull Volcanol 55:233–263
Thordarson T, Self S (2003) Atmospheric and environmental effects of the 1783–1784 Laki eruption: a review and reassessment. J Geophys Res-Atmos 108:29. doi: 10.1029/2001jd002042
Thorsteinsson T, Jóhannsson T, Stohl A, Kristiansen NI (2012) High levels of particulate matter in Iceland due to direct ash emissions by the Eyjafjallajökull eruption and resuspension of deposited ash. J Geophys Res. doi: 10.1029/2011JB008756
Titus JH, Tsuyuzaki S (2003) Distribution of plants in relation to microsites on recent volcanic substrates on Mount Koma Hokkaido, Japan. Ecol Res 18:91–98. doi: 10.1046/j.1440-1703.2003.00536.x
Tsuyuzaki S (2009) Causes of plant community divergence in the early stages of volcanic succession. J Veg Sci 20:959–969. doi: 10.1111/j.1654-1103.2009.01104.x
Tsuyuzaki S, Hase A (2005) Plant community dynamics on the volcano Mount Koma, northern Japan, after the 1996 eruption. Folia Geobotanica 40:319–330
UNISDR (2009) United Nations 2009 UNISDR terminology on disaster risk reduction. The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR), Geneva
UN-ISDR (2013) The WMO disaster risk reduction. A framework for disaster risk management derived from the Hyogo framework for Action 2005–2015. World Meteorological Organization. http://www.unisdr.org/we/coordinate/hfa . Accessed 5.jan.2013 2013
UNISDR (2011) Global assessment report on disaster risk reduction. Revealing risk redefining development summary and main findings. United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR), Geneva
UNISDR (2015) Sendai framework for disaster risk reduction 2015–2030. A/CONF.224/CRP.1. UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction. http://www.wcdrr.org/uploads/Sendai_Framework_for_Disaster_Risk_Reduction_2015-2030.pdf . 2015
United Nations ESCAP (2013) Building resilience to natural disasters and major economic crises. United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP), Bangkok
Viðlagatrygging Íslands (2011) Ársskýrsla 2011. Viðlagatrygging Íslands (Iceland Catastrophe Insurance), Reykjavík
Webb NP, Strong CL (2011) Soil erodibility dynamics and its representation for wind erosion and dust emission models. Aeolian Res 3:165–179. doi: 10.1016/j.aeolia.2011.03.002
Westley F et al (2011) Tipping Toward sustainability: emerging pathways of transformation. Ambio 40:762–780. doi: 10.1007/s13280-011-0186-9
Wilson T, Cole J, Cronin S, Stewart C, Johnston D (2010) Impacts on agriculture following the 1991 eruption of Vulcan Hudson, Patagonia: lessons for recovery. Nat Hazards 57:185–212. doi: 10.1007/s11069-010-9604-8
Wolfe SA, Nickling WG (1993) The protective role of sparse vegetation in wind erosion. Prog Phys Geogr 17:50–68. doi: 10.1177/030913339301700104
World Bank (2010) Convenient solutions to an inconvenient truth: ecosystem-based approaches to climate change. World Bank, Washington. doi: 10.1596/978-0-8213-8126-7