Trace elements and cancer risk: a review of the epidemiologic evidence

Parkin DM, Bray F, Ferlay J, Pisani P (2005) Global cancer statistics, 2002. CA Cancer J Clin 55: 74–108 World Health Organization (1996) Trace elements in human nutrition and health. World Health Organization, Geneva Whanger PD (2004) Selenium and its relationship to cancer: an update dagger. Br J Nutr 91:11–28 Prasad AS, Kucuk O (2002) Zinc in cancer prevention. Cancer Metastasis Rev 21:291–295 Sattar N, Scott HR, McMillan DC, Talwar D, O’Reilly DSJ, Fell GS (1997) Acute-phase reactants and plasma trace element concentrations in non-small cell lung cancer patients and controls. Nutr Cancer 28:308–312 Blot WJ, Brown LM, Pottern LM, Stone BJ, Fraumeni Jr JF (1983) Lung cancer among long-term steel workers. Am J Epidemiol 117:706–716 Hayes RB (1997) The carcinogenicity of metals in humans. Cancer Causes Control 8:371–385 International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) (1993) IARC monographs on the evaluation of the carcinogenic risk to man: beryllium, cadmium, mercury, and exposures in the glass manufacturing industry. Working Group views and expert opinions. IARC Press, Lyon International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) (1999) Arsenic and arsenic compounds. Overall evaluations of carcinogenicity: an updating of IARC Monographs Volumes 1 to 42. IARC, Lyon (France). Report No.: Supplement 7 International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) (1990) Chromium, nickel and welding. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risk Chem Man 49:1–648 Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) (2003) Toxicological profile for arsenic. United States Department of Health and Human Services Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta, GA, Report No.: 7440-38-2 Rasmussen L, Andersen KJ (2003) Environmental health and human exposure assessment. In: World Health Organization, UNICEF, editors. Arsenic in drinking water. IWA, London, pp 67–168 Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) (1999) Toxicological profile for cadmium. United States Department of Health and Human Services Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta, GA, Report No.: 7440-43-9 WHO Regional Office for Europe (2000) Air quality guidelines, 2nd edn. World Health Organization, Copenhagen, Denmark Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) (2003) Toxicological profile for nickel. United States Department of Health and Human Services Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta, GA, Report No.: 7440-02-0 Lamm SH, Engel A, Kruse MB, et al (2004) Arsenic in drinking water and bladder cancer mortality in the United States: an analysis based on 133 U.S. counties and 30 years of observation. J Occup Environ Med 46:298–306 Agency for Toxic Substances, Disease Registry (ATSDR) (2003) Toxicological profile for zinc. United States Department of Health and Human Services Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta, GA, Report No.: 7440-66-6 Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) (2003) Toxicological profile for selenium. United States Department of Health and Human Services Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta, GA, Report No.: 7782-49-2 Abdulla M, Parr RM, Iyengar GV (1993) Trace element requirements, intake and recommendations. In: Prasad AS (eds) Essential and toxic trace elements in human health and disease: an update. Wiley-Liss, New York, pp 311–328 D Hunter JS Morris CG Chute et al. (1990) ArticleTitlePredictors of selenium concentration in human toenails Am J Epidemiol 132 IssueID1 114–122 Occurrence Handle2356804 Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:DyaK3c3ovFOhtA%3D%3D Burguera JL, Burguera M, Gallignani M, Alarcon OM, Burguera JA (1990) Blood serum selenium in the province of Merida, Venezuela, related to sex, cancer incidence, and soil selenium contnet. J Trace Elem Electrolytes Health Dis 4:73–77 Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) (2001) ToxFAQs. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Atlanta, GA Meyer F, Verreault R (1987) Erythrocyte selemium and breast cancer risk. Am J Epidemiol 125:917–919 Garland M, Morris JS, Rosner B, et al (1993) Toenail trace element levels as biomarkers: reproducibility over a 6-year period. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2:493–497 Swanson CA, Longnecker MP, Veillon C, et al (1990) Selenium intake, age, gender, and smoking in relation to indices of selenium status of adults residing in seleniferous area. Am J Clin Nutr 52:858–862 Longnecker MP, Stram DO, Taylor PA, et al (1996) Use of selenium concentration in whole blood, serum, toenails, or urine as a surrogate measure of selenium intake. Epidemiol 7:384–390 Agahian B, Lee JS, Nelson JH, John RE (1990) Arsenic levels in fingernails as a biological indicator of exposure to arsenic. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 51:646–651 King JC (1990) Assessment of zinc status. J Nutr 120:1474–1479 Wood RJ (2000) Assessment of marginal zinc status in humans. J Nutr 130:1350S–1354S Nielsen FH (1993) Ultratrace elements of possible importance for human health: an update. In: Prasad AS (eds) Essential and toxic trace elements in human health and disease: an update. Wiley-Liss, New York, pp 355–376 Uthus EO, Seaborn CD (1996) Deliberations and evaluations of the approaches, endpoints and paradigms for dietary recommendations of the other trace elements. J Nutr 126:2452S–2459S Leonard A, Gerber GB (1994) Mutagenicity, carcinogenicity and teratogenicity of vanadium compounds. Mutat Res 317:81–88 Hossain K, Akhand AA, Kato M, et al (2000) Arsenite induces apoptosis of murine T lymphocytes through membrane raft-linked signaling for activation of c-Jun amino-terminal kinase. J Immunol 165:4290–4297 Chen W, Martindale JL, Holbrook NJ, Liu Y (1998) Tumor promoter arsenite activates extracellular signal-regulated kinase through a signaling pathway mediated by epidermal growth factor receptor and Shc. Mol Cell Biol 18:5178–5188 Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (2004) Public health goal for arsenic in drinking water. California Environmental Protection Agency Bates MN, Smith AH, Hopenhayn-Rich C (1992) Arsenic ingestion and internal cancers: a review. Am J Epidemiol 135:462–476 Chen CJ, Chuang YC, You SL, Lin HY (1986) A retrospective study on malignant neoplasms of bladder, lung and liver in blackfoot disease endemic area in Taiwan. Br J Cancer 53:399–405 Ferreccio C, Gonzalez PC, Milosavjlevic SV, Marshall GG, Sancha AM, Smith AH (2000) Lung cancer and arsenic concentrations in drinking water in Chile. Epidemiology 11:673–679 Chiou HY, Hsueh YM, Liaw KF, et al (1995) Incidence of internal cancers and ingested inorganic arsenic: a seven-year follow-up study in Taiwan. Cancer Res 55:1296–1300 Chen Y, Ahsan H (2004) Cancer burden from arsenic in drinking water in Bangladesh. Am J Public Health 94:741–744 Lewis DR, Southwick JW, Ouellet-Hellstrom R, Rench J, Calderon RJ (1999) Drinking water arsenic in Utah: A cohort mortality study. Environ Health Perspect 107:359–365 Bates MN, Rey OA, Biggs ML, et al (2004) Case–control study of bladder cancer and exposure to arsenic in Argentina. Am J Epidemiology 159:381–389 Chiou HY, Chiou ST, Hsu YH, et al (2001) Incidence of transitional cell carcinoma and arsenic in drinking water: a follow-up study of 8,102 residents in an arseniasis-endemic area in northeastern Taiwan. Am J Epidemiol 153:411–418 Kurttio P, Pukkala E, Kahelin A, Auvinen A, Pekkanen J (1999) Arsenic concentrations in well water and risk of bladder and kidney cancer in Finland. Environ Health Perspect 107:705–710 Garland M, Morris JS, Colditz GA, et al (1996) Toenail trace element levels and breast cancer: a prospective study. Am J Epidemiol 144:653–660 Pershagen G (1985) Lung cancer mortality among men living near an arsenic-emitting smelter. Am J Epidemiology 122:684–694 Hazelton WD, Leubeck EG, Heidenreich WF, Moolgavkar SH (2001) Analysis of a historical cohort of Chinese tin miners with arsenic, radon, cigarette smoke, and pipe smoke exposures using the biologically based two-stage clonal expansion model. Radiation Research 156:78–94 Mabuchi K, Lilienfeld AM, Snell LM (1980) Cancer and occupational exposure to arsenic: a study of pesticide workers. Prev Med 9:51–77 Coggon D, Pannett B, Acheson ED (1984) Use of job-exposure matrix in an occupational analysis of lung and bladder cancers on the basis of death certificates. JNCI 72:61–65 Bates MN, Smith AH, Cantor KP (1995) Case–control study of bladder cancer and arsenic in drinking water. Am J Epidemiology 141:523–530 Steinmaus C, Yuan Y, Bates MN, Smith AH (2003) Case–control study of bladder cancer and drinking water arsenic in the western United States. Am J Epidemiol 158:1193–1201 Michaud DS, Wright ME, Cantor KP, Taylor PR, Virtamo J, Albanes D (2004) Arsenic concentrations in prediagnostic toenails and the risk of bladder cancer in a cohort of male smokers. Am J Epidemiol 160:835–859 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program (2002) Report on Carcinogens, 10th edn. 2002 December McMurray CT, Tainer JA (2003) Cancer, cadmium and genome integrity. Nature Genetics 34:239–241 Waalkes MP (2000) Cadmium carcinogenesis in review. J Inorg Chem 79:241–244 Zheng H, Liu J, Choo KH, Michalska AE, Klaassen CD (1996) Metallothionein-I and -II knock-out mice are sensitive to cadmium-induced liver mRNA expression of c-jun and p53. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 136:229–235 Abshire MK, Buzard GS, Shiraishi N, Waalkes MP (1996) Induction of c-myc and c-jun proto-oncogene expression in rat L6 myoblasts by cadmium is inhibited by zinc preinduction of the metallothionein gene. J Toxicol Environ Health 48:359–377 Shimada H, Shiao YH, Shibata M, Waalkes MP (1998) Cadmium suppresses apoptosis induced by chromium. J Toxicol Environ Health 54:159–168 Lemen RA, Lee JS, Wagoner JK, Blejer HP (1976) Cancer mortality among cadmium production workers. Ann NY Acad Sci 271:273–279 Sorahan T, Watherhouse JAH (1983) Mortality study of nickel–cadmium battery workers by the method of regression models in life tables. Br J Ind Med 40:293–300 Elinder CG, Kjellstrom T, Hogstedt C, Andersson K, Spang G (1985) Cancer mortality of cadmium workers. Br J Ind Med 42:651–655 Sorahan T (1987) Mortality from lung cancer among a cohort of nickel cadmium battery workers: 1946–84. Br J Ind Med 44:803–809 Kazantzis G, Lam TH, Sullivan KR (1988) Mortality of cadmium-exposed workers. Scand J Work Environ Health 14:220–223 Stayner L, Smith R, Thun M, Schnorr T, Lemen R (1992) A dose-response analysis and quantitative assessment of lung cancer risk and occupational cadmium exposure. Ann Epidemiol 2:177–194 Sorahan T, Lister A, Gilthorpe MS, Harrington JM (1995) Mortality of copper cadmium alloy workers with special reference to lung cancer and non-malignant diseases of the respiratory system, 1946–92. Occup Environ Med 52:804–812 West DW, Slattery ML, Robison LM, French TK, Mahoney AW (1991) Adult dietary intake and prostate cancer risk in Utah: a case–control study with special emphasis on aggressive tumors. Cancer Causes Control 2:85–94 Platz EA, Helzlsouer KJ, Hoffman SC, Morris JS, Baskett CK, Comstock GW (2002) Prediagnostic toenail cadmium and zinc and subsequent prostate cancer risk. Prostate 52:288–296 Armstrong BG, Kazantzis G (1985) Prostatic cancer and chronic respiratory and renal disease in British cadmium workers: a case–control study. Br J Ind Med 42:540–545 Miki H, Kasprzak KS, Kenney S, Heine UI (1987) Inhibition of intercellular communication by nickel (II): antagonistic effect of magnesium. Carcinogensis 8:1757–1760 DiPaolo JA, Casto BC (1979) Quantitative studies of in vitro morphological transformation of Syrian hamster cells by inorganic metal salts. Cancer Res 39:1008–1013 Biedermann KA, Landolph JT (1987) Induction of anchorage independence in human diploid foreskin fibroblasts by carcinogenic metal salts. Cancer Res 47:3815–3823 Patierno SR, Dirscherl L, Xu J (1993) Transformation of rat tracheal epithelial cells to immortal growth variants by particulate and soluble nickel compounds. Mutat Res 300:179–193 Costa M (1996) Mehcanisms of nickel genotoxicity and carcinogenicity. In: Chang LW (eds) Toxicology of metals. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp 245–251 Sen P, Conway K, Costa M (1987) Comparison of the localization of chromosome damage induced by calcium chromate and nickel compounds. Cancer Res 47:2142–2147 Kasprzak KS (1991) The role of oxidative damage in metal carcinogenicity. Chem Res Toxicol 4:604–615 Hartwig A, Mullenders LHF, Schlepegrell R, Kasten U, Beyersmann D (1994) Nickel (II) interferes with the incision step in nucleotide excision repair in mammalian cells. Cancer Res 54:4045–4051 Lee YW, Klein CB, Kargacin B, et al (1995) Carcinogenic nickel silences gene expression by chromatin condensation and DNA methylation: a new model for epigenetic carcinogens. Mol Cell Biol 15:2547–2557 Grimsrud TK, Berge SR, Haldorsen T, Andersen A (2002) Exposure to different forms of nickel and risk of lung cancer. Am J Epidemiol 156:1123–1132 Grimsrud TK, Berge SR, Martinsen JI, Andersen A (2003) Lung cancer incidence among Norwegian nickel-refinery workers 1953–2000. J Environ Monit 5:190–197 Karjalainen S, Kerttula R, Pukkala E (1992) Cancer risk among workers at a copper/nickel smelter and nickel refinery in Finland. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 63:547–551 D Pang DCL Burges T Sorahan (1996) ArticleTitleMortality study of nickel platers with special reference to cancers of the stomach and lung, 1945–93 Occup Environ Med 53 714–717 Occurrence Handle8943838 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK28XmvVaku7o%3D Jarup L, Bellander T, Hogstedt C, Spang G (1998) Mortality and cancer incidence in Swedish battery workers exposed to cadmium and nickel. Occup Environ Med 55:755–759 Andersen A, Berge SR, Engeland A, Norseth T (1996) Exposure to nickel compounds and smoking in relation to incidence of lung and nasal cancer among nickel refinery workers. Occup Environ Med 53:708–713 Goldhaber SB (2003) Trace element risk assessment: essentiality vs. toxicity. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 38:232–242 van’t Veer P, van der Wielen RP, Kok F, Hermus RJ, Sturmans F (1990) Selenium in diet, blood and toenails in relation to breast cancer: a case–control study. Am J Epidemiol 131:987–994 van’t Veer P, Strain JJ, Fernandez-Crehuet J, et al (1996) Tissue antioxidants and postmenopausal breast cancer: the European Community Multicentre Study on Antioxidants, Myocardial Infarction, and Cancer of the Breast (EURAMIC). Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 5:441–447 Ghadirian P, Maisonneuve P, Perret C, et al (2000) A case-control study of toenail selenium and cancer of the breast, colon, and prostate. Cancer Detection Prev 24: 305–313 van Noord PA, de Waard F, Collette C, Mass MJ (1987) Selenium levels in nails of premenopausal breast cancer patients assessed prediagnostically in a cohort-nested case-referent study among women screened in the DOM project. Int J Epidemiol 16: 318–322 Hunter DJ, Morris JS, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Speizer FE, Willett WC (1990) A prospective study of selenium status and breast cancer risk. JAMA 264:1128–1131 van den Brandt PA, Goldbohm RA, van’t Veer P, et al (1994) Toenail selenium and risk of breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol 140:20–26 Strain JJ, Bokje E, van’t Veer P, et al (1997) Thyroid hormones and selenium status in breast cancer. Nutr Cancer 27:48–52 Coates RJ, Weiss NS, Daling JR, Morris JS, Labbe RF (1988) Serum levels of selenium and retinol and the subsequent risk of cancer. Am J Epidemiol 128:515–523 Schrauzer GN, Molenaar T, Mead S, Kuehn K, Yamamoto H, Araki E (1985) Selenium in the blood of Japanese and American women with and without breast cancer and fibrocystic disease. Jpn J Cancer Res 76:374–377 Willett WC, Polk BF, Morris JS, et al (1983) Prediagnostic serum selenium and risk of cancer. Lancet 2:130–134 Longnecker MP, Stampfer MJ, Morris JS, et al (1993) A 1-y trial of the effect of high-selenium bread on selenium concentrations in blood and toenails. Am J Clin Nutr 57:408–413 Morris JS, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC (1983) Dietary selenium in humans. Toenails as an indicator. Biol Trace Elem Res 5:529–537 Clark LC, Hixson LJ, Combs GF Jr, Reid ME, Turnbull BW, Sampliner RE (1993) Plasma selenium concentration predicts the prevalence of colorectal adenomatous polyps. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 2:41–46 Fernandez-Banares F, Cabre E, Esteve M, et al (2002) Serum selenium and risk of large size colorectal adenomas in a geographical area with a low selenium status. Am J Gastroenterol 97:2103–2108 Nomura A, Heilbrun LK, Morris JS, Stemmermann GN (1987) Serum selenium and the risk of cancer, by specific sites: case–control analysis of prospective data. JNCI 79:103–108 Wallace K, Byers T, Morris JS, et al (2003) Prediagnostic serum selenium concentration and the risk of recurrent colorectal adenoma: a nested case–controls study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 12:464–467 Garland M, Morris JS, Stampfer MJ, et al (1995) Prospective study of toenail selenium levels and cancer among women. J Natl Cancer Inst 87:497–505 Mannisto S, Alfthan G, Virtanen M, Kataja V, Uusitupa M, Pietinen P (2000) Toenail selenium and breast cancer – a case–control study in Finland. Eur J Clin Nutr 54:98–103 van den Brandt PA, Goldbohm RA, van’t Veer P, et al (1993) A prospective cohort study on toenail selenium levels and risk of gastrointestinal cancer. JNCI 85:224–229 Kabuto M, Imai H, Yonezawa C, et al (1994) Prediagnostic serum selenium and zinc levels and subsequent risk of lung and stomach cancer in Japan. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 3:465–469 Ratnasinghe D, Tangrea JA, Forman MR, et al (2000) Serum tocopherols, selenium and lung cancer risk among tin miners in China. Cancer Causes Control 11:129–135 Reid ME, Duffield-Lillico AJ, Garland L, Turnbull BW, Clark LC, Marshall JR (2002) Selenium supplementation and lung cancer incidence: an update of the nutritional prevention of cancer trial. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 11:1285–1291 Hartman TJ, Taylor PR, Alfthan G, et al (2002) Toenail selenium concentration and lung cancer in male smokers. Cancer Causes Control 13:923–928 van den Brandt PA, Goldbohm RA, van’t Veer P, et al (1993) A prospective study on selenium status and the risk of lung cancer. Cancer Res 53:4860–4865 Nakaji S, Fukuda S, Sakamoto J, et al (2001) Relationship between mineral and trace element concentrations in drinking water and gastric cancer mortality in Japan. Nutr Cancer 40:99–102 Kneller RW, Guo WD, Hsing AW, et al (1992) Risk factors for stomach cancer in sixty-five Chinese counties. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 1:113–118 Chen SY, Liu TY, Shun CT, et al (2004) Modification effects of GSTM1, GSTT1 and CYP2E1 polymorphisms on associates between raw salted food and incomplete intestinal metaplasia in a high-risk area of stomach cancer. Int J Cancer 108:606–612 Zhang L, Blot WJ, You WC, et al (1994) Serum micronutrients in relation to pre-cancerous gastric lesions. Int J Cancer 56:650–654 Knekt P, Aromaa A, Maatela J, et al (1990) Serum selenium and subsequent risk of cancer among Finnish men and women. JNCI 82:864–868 Wei WQ, Abnet CC, Qiao YL, et al (2004) Prospective study of serum selenium concentrations and esophageal and gastric cardia cancer, heart disease, stroke, and total death. Am J Clin Nutr 79:80–85 Mark SD, Qiao YL, Dawsey SM, et al (2000) Prospective study of serum selenium levels and incident esophageal and gastric cancers. J Natl Cancer Inst 92:1753–1763 Dawsey SM, Wang GQ, Taylor PR, et al (1994) Effects of vitamin/mineral supplementation on the prevalence of histological dysplasia and early cancer of the esophagus and stomach: results from the Dysplasia Trial in Linxian, China. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 3:167–172 Wang GQ, Dawsey SM, Li JY, et al (1994) Effects of vitamin/mineral supplementation on the prevalence of histological dysplasia and early cancer of the esophagus and stomach: results from the General Population Trial in Linxian, China. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 3:161–166 Helzlsouer KJ, Comstock GW, Morris JS (1989) Selenium, lycopene, alpha-tocopherol, beta-carotene, retinol, and subsequent bladder cancer. Cancer Res 49:6144–6148 Zeegers MP, Goldbohm A, Bode P, van den Brandt PA (2002) Prediagnostic toenail selenium and risk of bladder cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 11:1292–1297 Michaud DS, Hartman TJ, Taylor PR, et al (2002) No association between toenail selenium levels and bladder cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 11:1505–1506 Vogt TM, Ziegler RG, Graubard BI, et al (2003) Serum selenium and risk of prostate cancer in US blacks and whites. Int J Cancer 103:664–670 Allen NE, Morris JS, Ngwenyama RA, Key TJ (2004) A case–control study of selenium in nails and prostate cancer risk in British men. Br J Cancer 90:1392–1396 Brooks JD, Metter EJ, Chan DW, et al (2001) Plasma selenium level before diagnosis and the risk of prostate cancer development. J Urol 166: 2034–2038 Helzlsouer KJ, Huang HY, Alberg AJ, et al (2000) Association between alpha-tocopherol, gamma-tocopherol, selenium, and subsequent prostate cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 92:2018–2023 Nomura AMY, Lee J, Stemmermann GN, Combs GF Jr (2000) Serum selenium and subsequent risk of prostate cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 9:883–887 Yoshizawa K, Willett WC, Morris SJ, et al (1998) Study of prediagnostic selenium level in toenails and the risk of advanced prostate cancer. JNCI 90:1219–1224 Li H, Stampfer MJ, Giovannucci EL, et al (2004) A prospective study of plasma selenium levels and prostate cancer risk. J Natl Cancer Inst 96:696–703 van den Brandt PA, Zeegers MPA, Bode P, Goldbohm RA (2003) Toenail selenium levels and the subsequent risk of prostate cancer: a prospective cohort study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 12:866–871 Hartman TJ, Albanes D, Pietinen P, et al (1998) The association between baseline vitamin E, selenium, and prostate cancer in the Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta-Carotene Cancer Prevention Study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 7:335–340 Clark LC, Dalkin B, Krongrad A, et al (1998) Decreased incidence of prostate cancer with selenium supplementation: results of a double-blind cancer prevention trial. Br J Urol 81:730–734 Prasad AS, Halsted JA, Nadimi M (1961) Syndrome of iron deficiency anemia, hepatospenomegaly, hyopgonadism, dwarfism,and geophagia. Am J Med 31:532–546 Prasad AS, Miale A, Farid Z, Sandstead HH, Schulert AR (1963) Zinc metabolism in patients with the syndrome of iron deficiency anemia, hypogonadism and dwarfism. J Lab Clin Med 61:537–549 Prasad AS (1998) Zinc in human health: an update. J Trace Elem Exp Med 11:63–78 O’Connor JM (2001) Trace elements and DNA damage. Biochem Soc Trans 29:354–357 Leccia MT, Richard MJ, Favier A, Beani JC (1999) Zinc protects against ultraviolet A1-induced DNA damage and apoptosis in cultured human fibroblasts. Biol Trace Elem Res 69:177–190 Gupta SK, Shukla VK, Vaidya MP, Roy SK, Gupta S (1991) Serum trace elements and Cu/Zn ratio in breast cancer patients. J Surg Oncol 46:178–181 Adzersen KH, Jess P, Freivogel KW, Gerhard I, Bastert G (2003) Raw and cooked vegetables, fruits, selected micronutrients, and breast cancer risk: a case–control study in Germany. Nutr Cancer 46:131–137 Harris RWC, Key TJA, Silcocks PB, Bull D, Wald NJ (1991) A case–control study of dietary carotene in men with lung cancer and in men with other epithelial cancers. Nutr Cancer 15:63–68 Cocco PL, Carta P, Belli S, Picchiri GF, Flore MV (1994) Mortality of Sardinian lead and zinc miners: 1960–88. Occup Environ Med 51:674–682 Zhang ZF, Kurtz RC, Yu GP, et al (1997) Adenocarcinomas of the esophagus and gastric cardia: the role of diet. Nutr Cancer 27:298–309 Costello LC, Franklin RB, Tan M, Bagasra O (2005) Zinc and prostate cancer: a critical scientific, medical, and public interest issue (United States). Cancer Causes Control 16:901–915 Kolonel LN, Yoshizawa CN, Hankin JH (1988) Diet and prostatic cancer: a case–control study in Hawaii. Am J Epidemiol 127:999–1012 Leitzmann MF, Stampfer MJ, Wu K, Colditz GA, Willett WC, Giovannucci EL (2003) Zinc supplement use and risk of prostate cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 95:1004–1007 Kristal AR, Stanford JL, Cohen JH, Wicklund K, Patterson RE (1999) Vitamin and mineral supplement use is associated with reduced risk of prostate cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 8:887–892 Vlajinac HD, Marinkovic JM, Ilic MD, Kocev NI (1997) Diet and prostate cancer: a case–control study. Eur J Nutr 33:101–107