Verbal and Nonverbal Communication of Deception

H.A. Alker Mystification and deception in presidential press conferences. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Washington, D.C. 1976 September Apple, 1979, Effects of pitch and speech rate on personal attributions., Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 715, 10.1037/0022-3514.37.5.715 Argyle, 1970, The communication of friendly and hostile attitudes by verbal and non-verbal signals., European Journal of Social Psychology, 1, 385, 10.1002/ejsp.2420010307 Argyle, 1970, The communication of inferior and superior attitudes by verbal and non-verbal signals., British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 9, 222, 10.1111/j.2044-8260.1970.tb00668.x Atkinson, 1979, Level of analysis as a determinant of the meaning of nonverbal behavior., Social Psychology Quarterly, 42, 270, 10.2307/3033770 Atmiyanandana, V. An experimental study of the detection of deception in cross-cultural communication. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Florida State University, 1976. Baskett, 1974, Aspects of language pragmatics and the social perception of lying., Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 3, 117, 10.1007/BF01067571 Bauchner, J.E. Accuracy in detecting deception as a function of level of relationship and communication history. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Florida State University, 1978. (As cited by Brandt et al., 1980a.) Bauchner, 1977, The truth/deception attribution: Effects of varying levels of information availability., 10.1080/23808985.1977.11923683 Ben-Shakhar, 1977, A further study of the dichotomization theory in detection of information., Psycho-physiology, 14, 408, 10.1111/j.1469-8986.1977.tb02974.x Ben-Shakhar, 1975, Detection of information and GSR habituation: An attempt to derive detection efficiency from two habituation curves., Psychophysiology, 12, 283, 10.1111/j.1469-8986.1975.tb01291.x Bennet, 1978, Micromoments., Human Behavior, 7, 34 Berlyne, 1971 Berrien, 1943, An exploratory study of pupillary responses during deception., Journal of Experimental Psychology, 32, 443, 10.1037/h0063488 Blanck, 1981, Longitudinal and cross-sectional age effects in nonverbal decoding skill and style., Developmental Psychology Bok, 1978 Bolinger, 1973, Truth is a linguistic question., Language, 49, 539, 10.2307/412350 Brandt, 1980, The truth-deception attribution: Effects of familiarity on the ability of observers to detect deception., Human Communication Research, 6, 99, 10.1111/j.1468-2958.1980.tb00130.x Brandt, 1980 Brown, 1973, Perceptions of personality from speech: Effects of manipulations of acoustical parameters., Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 54, 29, 10.1121/1.1913571 Brown, 1974, Fifty-four voices from two: The effects of simultaneous manipulations of rate, mean fundamental frequency, and variance of fundamental frequency on ratings of personality from speech., Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 55, 313, 10.1121/1.1914504 Bugental, 1980, Experimentally-produced child uncontrollability: Effects on the potency of adult communication patterns., Child Development, 51, 520, 10.2307/1129287 Bugental, 1976, Attributional antecedents of verbal and vocal assertiveness., Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 405, 10.1037/0022-3514.34.3.405 Bugental, 1970, Perception of contradictory meanings conveyed by verbal and nonverbal channels., Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 16, 647, 10.1037/h0030254 Bugental, 1975, Nonassertive expression of parental approval and disapproval and its relationship to child disturbance., Child Development, 46, 747, 10.2307/1128573 Burns, 1976, Eye contact while lying during an interview., Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 7, 87, 10.3758/BF03337131 Carver, 1919, A cybernetic model of self-attention processes., Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 1251 Christensen, D. Decoding of intended versus unintended nonverbal messages as a function of social skill and anxiety. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Connecticut, 1980. Christie, 1970 Clark, 1977 W.R. Clark A comparison of pupillary response, heart rate, and GSR during deception. Paper presented at the meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago 1975 Cohen, 1977 Cutrow, 1972, The objective use of multiple physiological indices in the detection of deception., Psychophysiology, 9, 578, 10.1111/j.1469-8986.1972.tb00767.x Davis, 1961, Physiological responses as a means of evaluating information. Demos, 1960, Lying to oneself., Journal of Philosophy, 57, 588, 10.2307/2023611 B.M. DePaulo Success at detecting deception: Liability or skill? Paper presented at the conference on the Clever Hans Phenomenon 1980 New York Academy of Sciences New York May DePaulo, 1981 B.M. DePaulo T. Davis K. Lanier Planning lies: The effects of spontaneity and arousal on success at deception. Paper presented at the Eastern Psychological Association, Hartford, Connecticut 1980 April (d) DePaulo, 1980 DePaulo, 1981, Too tuned-out to take: The role of nonverbal sensitivity in help seeking., Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 10.1177/014616728172003 DePaulo, 1981 DePaulo, 1981 DePaulo, 1981 B.M. DePaulo V. Leiphart W.R. Dull Help-seeking and social interaction: Person situation, and process considerations. Paper presented at the international conference on the Development and Maintenance of Prosocial Behavior, Warsaw, Poland 1980 July, (f) DePaulo, 1979, Ambivalence, discrepancy, and deception in nonverbal communication. DePaulo, 1979, Telling lies., Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1713, 10.1037/0022-3514.37.10.1713 DePaulo, 1978, Decoding discrepant nonverbal cues., Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 313, 10.1037/0022-3514.36.3.313 DePaulo, 1981 DePaulo, 1981 B.M. DePaulo T.D. Wilson K. Lanier Unpublished data, University of Virginia 1981 (f) DePaulo, 1980, Humans as lie detectors., Journal of Communication, 30, 129, 10.1111/j.1460-2466.1980.tb01975.x DePaulo, 1980, Modality effects in the detection of deception. DePaulo, 1980, The deceptions of everyday life., Journal of Communication, 30, 216 Duval, 1972 P. Ekman Mistakes when deceiving. Paper presented at the conference on the Clever Hans Phenomenon, New York Academy of Sciences, New York 1980 May Ekman, 1969, Nonverbal leakage and clues to deception., Psychiatry, 32, 88, 10.1080/00332747.1969.11023575 Ekman, 1969, The repertoire of nonverbal behavior: Categories, origins, usage, and coding., Semiotica, 1, 49, 10.1515/semi.1969.1.1.49 Ekman, 1972, Hand movements., Journal of Communication, 22, 353, 10.1111/j.1460-2466.1972.tb00163.x Ekman, 1974, Detecting deception from the body or face., Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 29, 288, 10.1037/h0036006 Ekman, 1980, Relative importance of face, body, and speech in judgments of personality and affect., Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 270, 10.1037/0022-3514.38.2.270 Ekman, 1976, Body movement and voice pitch in deceptive interaction., Semiotica, 16, 23, 10.1515/semi.1976.16.1.23 Elliott, 1979, Some effects of deception and level of self-monitoring on planning and reacting to a self-presentation., Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1282, 10.1037/0022-3514.37.8.1282 Ellsworth, 1976, Staring and approach: An interpretation of the stare as a nonspecific activator., Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 33, 117, 10.1037/0022-3514.33.1.117 Exline, 1970, Visual interaction in relation to Machiavellianism and an unethical act., 10.1016/B978-0-12-174450-2.50009-9 Fairbanks, 1940, Recent experimental investigations of vocal pitch in speech., Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 11, 457, 10.1121/1.1916060 Fay, 1941, The ability to judge truth-telling, or lying, from the voice as transmitted over a public address system. The, Journal of General Psychology, 24, 211, 10.1080/00221309.1941.10544369 Feldman, 1976, Nonverbal disclosure of teacher deception and interpersonal affect., Journal of Educational Psychology, 68, 807, 10.1037/0022-0663.68.6.807 Feldman, 1979, Nonverbal disclosure of deception in urban Koreans., Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 10, 73, 10.1177/0022022179101005 Feldman, 1978, Nonverbal cues as indicators of verbal dissembling., American Educational Research Journal, 15, 217, 10.3102/00028312015002217 Feldman, 1979, Detection of deception in adults and children via facial expressions., Child Development, 50, 350, 10.2307/1129409 Feldman, 1980, Detecting deception in children., Journal of Communication, 30, 121, 10.1111/j.1460-2466.1980.tb01974.x Fenigstein, 1975, Public and private selfconsciousness: Assessment and theory., Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 43, 522, 10.1037/h0076760 Fingarette, 1969 Finkelstein, S. The relationship between physical attractiveness and nonverbal behaviors. Unpublished honors thesis, Hampshire College, 1978. Flavell, 1968 Freud, 1959, 3 Friedhoff, 1964, An electro-acoustic analysis of the effects of stress on voice., Journal of Neuropsychiatry, 5, 266 Friedman, 1979, The interactive effects of facial expressions of emotion and verbal messages on perceptions of affective meaning., Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 15, 453, 10.1016/0022-1031(79)90008-8 Fugita, 1980, Perceived expertise in detecting deception, successfulness of deception and nonverbal cues., Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 6, 637, 10.1177/014616728064014 Gagnon, L.R. The encoding and decoding of cues to deception. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Arizona State University, 1975. Geis, 1980 Goffman, 1959 Goldman-Eisler, 1968 Goldstein, 1923, Reaction times and the consciousness of deception., American Journal of Psychology, 34, 562, 10.2307/1414058 Gur, 1979, Self-deception: A concept in search of a phenomenon., Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 147, 10.1037/0022-3514.37.2.147 Gustafson, 1963, Effects of heightened motivation on the detection of deception., Journal of Applied Psychology, 47, 408, 10.1037/h0041899 Gustafson, 1965, Effects of perceived role and role success on the detection of deception., Journal of Applied Psychology, 49, 412, 10.1037/h0022798 Haggard, 1966, Micromomentary facial expressions as indicators of ego mechanisms in psychotherapy., 10.1007/978-1-4684-6045-2_14 Hall, 1978, Gender effects in decoding nonverbal cues., Psychological Bulletin, 85, 845, 10.1037/0033-2909.85.4.845 Hall, 1980, Gender differences in nonverbal communication skills. Harrison, 1978, Cues to deception in an interview situation., Social Psychology, 41, 156, 10.2307/3033575 Hayano, 1980, Communicative competency among poker players., Journal of Communication, 30, 113, 10.1111/j.1460-2466.1980.tb01973.x Hecker, 1968, Manifestations of task-induced stress in the acoustic speech signal., Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 44, 993, 10.1121/1.1911241 Heilveil, 1976, Deception and pupil size., Journal of Clinical Psychology, 32, 675, 10.1002/1097-4679(197607)32:3<675::AID-JCLP2270320340>3.0.CO;2-A G.D. Hemsley Experimental studies in the behavioral indicants of deception. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Toronto, 1977 Hemsley, 1978, The effect of looking behavior on perceptions of a communicator's credibility., Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 8, 136, 10.1111/j.1559-1816.1978.tb00772.x G.D. Hemsley A.N. Doob The detection of deception from nonverbal behaviors. Paper presented at the meeting of the Canadian Psychological Association, Quebec 1979 Henke, 1909, Mental diagnosis by reaction method., Psychological Review, 16, 399, 10.1037/h0070202 Hess, 1964, Pupil size in relation to mental activity during simple problem-solving., Science, 143, 1190, 10.1126/science.143.3611.1190 R.A. Hildreth An experimental study of audiences' ability to distinguish between sincere and insincere speeches. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Southern California, 1953 Hocking, 1979, Detecting deceptive communication from verbal, visual, and paralinguistic cues., Human Communication Research, 6, 33, 10.1111/j.1468-2958.1979.tb00289.x Hocking, 1980, Nonverbal indicators of deception: A new theoretical perspective., Communication Monographs, 47, 119, 10.1080/03637758009376025 Hocking, 1978, Videotape in the courtroom., Trial, 14, 52 Holzman, 1966, The voice as a percept., Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4, 79, 10.1037/h0023518 Horvath, 1973, Verbal and nonverbal clues to truth and deception during polygraph examinations., Journal of Police Science and Administration, 1, 138 Horvath, 1978, An experimental comparison of the psychological stress evaluator and the galvanic skin response in detection of deception., Journal of Applied Psychology, 63, 338, 10.1037/0021-9010.63.3.338 Horvath, 1979, Effect of different motivational instructions on detection of deception with the psychological stress evaluator and the galvanic skin response., Journal of Applied Psychology, 64, 323, 10.1037/0021-9010.64.3.323 Jung, 1910, The association reaction method., American Journal of Psychology, 21, 219, 10.2307/1413002 Kahneman, 1973 Kahneman, 1967, Pupillary responses in a pitch-discrimination task., Perception and Psychophysics, 2, 101, 10.3758/BF03210302 Kahneman, 1969, Incentive effects and pupillary changes in association learning., Journal of Experimental Psychology, 79, 312, 10.1037/h0026912 Kahneman, 1969, Pupillary, heart rate, and skin resistance changes during a mental task., Journal of Experimental Psychology, 79, 164, 10.1037/h0026952 Kasl, 1965, The relationship of disturbances and hesitations in spontaneous speech to anxiety., Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1, 425, 10.1037/h0021918 Knapp, 1979, Telling it like it isn't: A review of theory and research on deceptive communications., Human Communication Research, 5, 270, 10.1111/j.1468-2958.1979.tb00640.x Knapp, 1974, An exploration of deception as a communication construct., Human Communication Research, 1, 15, 10.1111/j.1468-2958.1974.tb00250.x Krauss, 1981, Verbal, vocal and visible factors in judgments of another's affect., Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 312, 10.1037/0022-3514.40.2.312 R.M. Krauss V. Geller C. Olson Modalities and cues in the detection of deception. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Washington, D.C., September 1976 R.M. Krauss N. Morency Nonverbal encoding and decoding affect by first and fifth graders. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Montreal 1980 Kraut, 1978, Verbal and nonverbal cues in the perception of lying., Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 380, 10.1037/0022-3514.36.4.380 Kraut, 1978 Kraut, 1980, Humans as lie detectors: Some second thoughts., Journal of Communication, 30, 209, 10.1111/j.1460-2466.1980.tb02030.x Kraut, 1980, On the line: The deception judgements of customs inspectors and laymen., Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 784, 10.1037/0022-3514.39.5.784 Kraut, 1980 Lay, 1968, Perception of the personality of the hesitant speaker., Perceptual and Motor Skills, 26, 951, 10.2466/pms.1968.26.3.951 Leakey, 1978 Lieblich, 1970, Efficiency of GSR detection of information as a function of stimulus set size., Psychophysiology, 6, 601, 10.1111/j.1469-8986.1970.tb02249.x Lippa, 1976, Expressive control and the leakage of dispositional introversion-extraversion during role-played teaching., Journal of Personality, 44, 541, 10.1111/j.1467-6494.1976.tb00137.x Littlepage, 1978, Verbal, facial, and paralinguistic cues to the detection of truth and lying., Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 4, 461, 10.1177/014616727800400321 Littlepage, 1979, Detection of deceptive factual statements from the body and the face., Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 5, 325, 10.1177/014616727900500311 G.E. Littlepage M.A. Pineault Detection of deception of planned versus spontaneous communications. Paper presented at the annual convention of the Psychonomic Society, November 1979 (b) Littlepage, 1981, Detection of truthful and deceptive interpersonal communications across information transmission modes., Journal of Social Psychology, 114, 57, 10.1080/00224545.1981.9922726 Lykken, 1959, The GSR in the detection of guilt., Journal of Applied Psychology, 43, 385, 10.1037/h0046060 Lykken, 1960, The validity of the guilty knowledge technique: The effects of faking., Journal of Applied Psychology, 44, 258, 10.1037/h0044413 Lykken, 1974, Psychology and the lie detector industry., American Psychologist, 29, 725, 10.1037/h0037441 Lykken, 1978, The psychopath and the lie detector., Psychophysiology, 15, 137, 10.1111/j.1469-8986.1978.tb01349.x Lykken, 1979, The detection of deception., Psychological Bulletin, 86, 47, 10.1037/0033-2909.86.1.47 McClintock, 1975, Nonverbal indicators of affect and deception in an interview setting., Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 5, 54, 10.1111/j.1559-1816.1975.tb00671.x McCroskey, 1969, The effects of disorganization and nonfluency on attitude change and source credibility., Speech Monographs, 36, 13, 10.1080/03637756909375604 McGuire, 1969, The nature of attitudes and attitude change. MacLachlan, 1979, What people really think of fast talkers., Psychology Today, 13, 113 Mahl, 1968, Gestures and body movements in interviews., 3 Maier, 1966, Sensitivity to attempts at deception in an interview situation., Personnel Psychology, 19, 55, 10.1111/j.1744-6570.1966.tb02435.x Maier, 1967, Reliability of reasons used in making judgments of honesty and dishonesty., Perceptual and Motor Skills, 25, 141, 10.2466/pms.1967.25.1.141 Maier, 1968, Accuracy of judgments of deception when an interview is watched, heard, and read., Personnel Psychology, 21, 23, 10.1111/j.1744-6570.1968.tb02283.x Maier, 1976, Lying behavior and evaluation of lies., Perceptual and Motor Skills, 42, 575, 10.2466/pms.1976.42.2.575 Manaugh, 1970, Content saliency and interviewee speech behavior., Journal of Clinical Psychology, 26, 17, 10.1002/1097-4679(197001)26:1<17::AID-JCLP2270260103>3.0.CO;2-A Marston, 1920, Reaction time symptoms of deception., Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3, 72, 10.1037/h0067963 Matarazzo, 1970, Interviewee speech behavior under conditions of endogenously-present and exogenously-induced motivational states., Journal of Clinical Psychology, 26, 141, 10.1002/1097-4679(197004)26:2<141::AID-JCLP2270260203>3.0.CO;2-S Mehrabian, 1966, Immediacy: An indicator of attitudes in linguistic communication., Journal of Personality, 34, 26, 10.1111/j.1467-6494.1966.tb01696.x Mehrabian, 1967, Attitudes inferred from non-immediacy of verbal communications., Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 6, 294, 10.1016/S0022-5371(67)80113-0 Mehrabian, 1971, Nonverbal betrayal of feeling., Journal of Experimental Research in Personality, 5, 64 Mehrabian, 1967, Inference of attitudes from nonverbal communication in two channels., Journal of Consulting Psychology, 31, 248, 10.1037/h0024648 Meyer, 1953, On the interaction of simultaneous responses., Psychological Bulletin, 50, 204, 10.1037/h0061173 Miller, 1981, “And nothing but the truth”: How well can observers detect deceptive testimony? Miller, 1981, Factors affecting assessments of witness credibility. Miller, 1964, The effect of variations in nonfluency on audience ratings of source credibility., Quarterly Journal of Speech, 50, 36, 10.1080/00335636409382644 Miller, 1976, Speed of speech and persuasion., Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 615, 10.1037/0022-3514.34.4.615 Morris, 1977, Nonverbal leakage: How can you tell if someone's lying. New York, 43 Motley, 1974, Acoustic correlates of lies., Western Speech, 38, 81, 10.1080/10570317409373814 Newtson, 1973, Attribution and the unit of perception of ongoing behavior., Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28, 28, 10.1037/h0035584 J.L. Nieters The differential role of facial and body cues in the recognition of disguised emotional responses. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Saint Louis University, 1975 Nunnally, 1967, Pupillary response as a general measure of activation., Perception and Psychophysics, 2, 149, 10.3758/BF03210310 O'Hair, 1981, Prepared lies, spontaneous lies, Machiavellianism and nonverbal communication., Human Communication Research, 10.1111/j.1468-2958.1981.tb00579.x Orne, 1972, On the detection of deception: A model for the study of the physiological effects of psychological stimuli. Parham, 1980 Podlesny, 1977, Physiological measures and the detection of deception., Psychological Bulletin, 84, 782, 10.1037/0033-2909.84.4.782 Premack, 1978, Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind?, The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 4, 515, 10.1017/S0140525X00076512 Raskin, 1978, Scientific assessment of the accuracy of detection of deception: A reply to Lykken., Psychophysiology, 15, 143, 10.1111/j.1469-8986.1978.tb01350.x Raskin, 1978, Psychopathy and detection of deception in a prison population., Psychophysiology, 15, 126, 10.1111/j.1469-8986.1978.tb01348.x Raskin, 1979, Truth and deception: A reply to Lykken., Psychological Bulletin, 86, 54, 10.1037/0033-2909.86.1.54 Reid, 1977 Rice, 1978, The new truth machines., Psychology Today Rogers, 1971, Content filtering human speech: A simple electronic system., Behavior Research Methods and Instrumentation, 3, 16, 10.3758/BF03208115 Rosenthal, 1978, Combining results of independent studies., Psychological Bulletin, 85, 185, 10.1037/0033-2909.85.1.185 Rosenthal, 1980, Summarizing significance levels. Rosenthal, 1981, Conducting judgement studies. Rosenthal, 1979, Sex differences in eavesdropping on nonverbal cues., Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 273, 10.1037/0022-3514.37.2.273 Rosenthal, 1979, Sex differences in accomodation in nonverbal communication. Rosenthal, 1980, Encoders or decoders as units of analysis in research in nonverbal communication., Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 5, 92, 10.1007/BF00986512 Rosenthal, 1979 Rosenthal, 1978, Interpersonal expectancy effects: The first 345 studies., The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 3, 377, 10.1017/S0140525X00075506 Rosenthal, 1979, Comparing significance levels of independent studies., Psychological Bulletin, 86, 1165, 10.1037/0033-2909.86.5.1165 H.G. Rotkin Information used in detecting deception. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, New York University, 1979 Saarni, 1979, Children's understanding of display rules for expressive behavior., Developmental Psychology, 15, 424, 10.1037/0012-1649.15.4.424 C. Saarni When NOT to show what you feel: Children's understanding of relations between emotional experience and expressive behavior. Paper presented at the meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, San Francisco 1979 March (b) C. Saarni Observing children's use of display rules: Age and sex differences. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Montreal 1980 Scherer, 1979, Personality markers in speech. Scherer, 1980, Vocal indicators of stress. Scherer, 1980, Speech and emotional states. Schneider, 1977, The effect of lying upon foot and leg movement., Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 10, 451, 10.3758/BF03337694 Scott, 1967, Pupillary response and sexual interest reexamined., Journal of Clinical Psychology, 23, 433, 10.1002/1097-4679(196710)23:4<433::AID-JCLP2270230408>3.0.CO;2-2 Sereno, 1967, The effects of variations in speakers' nonfluency upon audience ratings of attitude toward the speech topic and speakers' credibility., Speech Monographs, 34, 58, 10.1080/03637756709375520 Sharp, 1966, Effects of organization on the speaker's ethos., Speech Monographs, 38, 182, 10.1080/03637756609375495 T. Shipp R. McGlone Physiologic correlates of acoustic correlates of psychologic stress. Paper presented at the meeting of the Acoustical Society of America, Los Angeles, November 1973 Simpson, 1969, Effects of a task relevant response on pupil size., Psychophysiology, 6, 115, 10.1111/j.1469-8986.1969.tb02890.x Simpson, 1969, Pupillary changes during a decision making task., Perceptual and Motor Skills, 29, 495, 10.2466/pms.1969.29.2.495 Smith, 1975, Effects of speech rate on personality perception., Language and Speech, 18, 145, 10.1177/002383097501800203 Snyder, 1974, Self-monitoring of expressive behavior., Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 30, 526, 10.1037/h0037039 Starkweather, 1956, Content-free speech as a source of information about the speaker., Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 52, 394, 10.1037/h0041133 Streeter, 1977, Pitch changes during attempted deception., Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 345, 10.1037/0022-3514.35.5.345 W.R. Todd Linguistic indices of deception as manifested by women: A content analytic study. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Florida State University, 1976 Toris, 1981 Trovillo, 1939, A history of lie detection., Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 29, 848, 10.2307/1136489 Wagner, 1976, The verbal communication of inconsistency between attitudes held and attitudes expressed., Journal of Personality, 44, 1, 10.1111/j.1467-6494.1976.tb00580.x Waid, 1981, Cognitive, social and personality processes in the physiological detection of deception., 14 Weitz, 1972, Attitude, voice, and behavior: A repressed affect model of interracial interaction., Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24, 14, 10.1037/h0033383 Wiener, 1968 Williams, 1969, On determining the emotional state of pilots during flight: An exploratory study., Aerospace Medicine, 40, 1369 S.J. Wilson Channel differences in the detection of deception. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Florida State University, 1975 Yerkes, 1909, The association reaction method of mental diagnosis., American Journal of Psychology, 20, 22, 10.2307/1412891 Zuckerman, 1980 Zuckerman, 1980, Developmental changes in decoding discrepant and nondiscrepant nonverbal cues., Developmental Psychology, 16, 220, 10.1037/0012-1649.16.3.220 Zuckerman, 1979, Facial and vocal cues of deception and honesty., Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 15, 378, 10.1016/0022-1031(79)90045-3 Zuckerman, 1981, Beliefs about cues associated with deception., Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 10.1007/BF00987286 Zuckerman, 1981, Controlling nonverbal cues: Facial expressions and tone of voice., Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 10.1016/0022-1031(81)90037-8 Zuckerman, 1975, Encoding and decoding nonverbal cues of emotion., Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 1068, 10.1037/0022-3514.32.6.1068 Zuckerman, 1980