Providing informal care in a changing society
Tóm tắt
The ageing of society is leading to significant reforms in long-term care policy and systems in many European countries. The cutbacks in professional care are increasing demand for informal care considerably, from both kin and non-kin. At the same time, demographic and societal developments such as changing family structures and later retirement may limit the supply of informal care. This raises the question as to whether the volume of informal care (in people) will increase in the years ahead. This paper aims to provide a theoretical answer to this question in two steps. First, based on different care models and empirical literature, we develop a behavioural model on individual caregiving, the Informal Care Model. The model states that, in response to the care recipient’s need for care, the intention to provide care is based on general attitudes, quality of the relationship, normative beliefs, and perceived barriers. Whether one actually provides care also depends on the care potential of the social context, being the family, the social network, and the community. Second, we discuss how current policy and societal developments may negatively or positively impact on these mechanisms underlying the provision of informal care. Given the increased need for care among home-dwelling individuals, the model suggests that more people will take up the caregiver role in the years ahead contributing to larger and more diverse care networks. It is concluded that long-term informal care provision is a complex phenomenon including multiple actors in various contexts. More research is needed to test the Informal Care Model empirically, preferably using information on care recipients, informal caregivers and community care in a dynamic design and in different countries. Such information will increase insight in the developments in informal care provision in retrenching welfare states.
Tài liệu tham khảo
Agree EM, Glaser K (2009) Demography of informal caregiving. In: Uhlenberg P (ed) International handbook of population aging, vol I. Springer, New York, pp 647–668
Agree EM, Freedman VA, Cornman JC, Wolf DA, Marcotte JE (2005) Reconsidering substitution in long term care: when does assistive technology take the place of personal care? J Gerontol B Soc Sci 60:S272–S280
Allan G (2008) Flexibility, friendship and family. Pers Rel 15:1–16
Allen SM, Lima JC, Goldscheider FK, Roy J (2012) Primary caregiver characteristics and transitions in community-based care. J Gerontol B Soc Sci 67:362–371
Andersen R, Newman JF (2005) Societal and individual determinants of medical care utilization in the United States. Milbank Q. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0009.2005.00428.x
Babitsch B, Gohl D, von Lengerke T (2012) Re-revisiting Andersen’s behavioral model of health services use: a systematic review of studies from 1998–2011. GMS Psych Soc Med. doi:10.3205/psm000089
Barker JC (2002) Neighbors, friends and other nonkin caregivers of community-living dependent elders. J Gerontol Soc Sci 57:S158–S167
Bauer JM, Sousa-Poza A (2015) Impacts of informal caregiving on caregiver employment, health and family. Pop Ageing 8:113–145
Bengtson VL, Roberts REL (1991) Intergenerational solidarity in aging families: an example of formal theory construction. J Marriage Fam 53:856–870
Bengtson VL, Rosenthal CJ, Burton LM (1990) Paradoxes of families and aging. In: Binstock RH, George LK (eds) Handbook of aging and the social sciences, 3rd edn. Academic Press, San Diego, pp 263–287
Broese van Groenou M, Jacobs M, Zwart-Olde I, Deeg DJH (2015) Mixed care networks of community-dwelling older adults with physical health impairments in the Netherlands. Health Soc Care Community. doi:10.1111/hsc.12199
Burr JA, Choi NG, Mutchler JE, Caro FG (2005) Caregiving and volunteering: are private and public helping behaviors linked? J Gerontol Soc Sci 5:S247–S256
Cantor MH (1979) Neighbors and friends: an overlooked resource in the informal support system. Res Aging 1:434–463
Carmichael F, Charles S, Hulme C (2010) Who will care? Employment participation and willingness to supply informal care. J Health Econ 29(1):182–190
Colombo F et al (2011) Help Wanted? Providing and paying for long-term care. OECD Health Policy Studies, OECD Publishing. http://www.oecd.org/health/longtermcare/helpwanted
Cooney TM, Dykstra PA (2011) Family obligations and support behavior: a United States–Netherlands comparison. Ageing Soc 13:1026–1050
Da Roit B (2013) Long-term care reforms in the Netherlands. In: Ranci C, Pavolini E (eds) Reforms in long-term care policies in Europe. Springer, New York, pp 97–115
Dwyer JW, Coward RT (1991) A multivariate comparison of the involvement of adult sons versus daughters in the care of impaired parents. J Gerontol 46:259–269
Egging S, De Boer AH, Stevens NL (2011) Zorgzame vrienden en buren als mantelzorgers van oudere volwassenen: een vergelijking met kinderen [Caring friends and neighbors as a predictor of caregiver strain]. Tijdschr Gerontol Geriatr 42:243–255
Fast J, Keating NC, Derksen L, Otfinowski P (2004) Characteristics of family/friend care networks of frail seniors. Can J Aging 23:5–19
Fishbein M, Azjen I (2010) Predicting and changing behavior: the reasoned action approach. Psychology Press Taylor and Francis Group, New York
Geerts J, Van den Bosch K (2012) Transitions in formal and informal care utilisation among older Europeans: the impact of national contexts. Eur J Ageing 9:27–37
Goodman CR, Zarit SH, Steiner VL (1997) Personal orientation as a predictor of caregiver strain. Aging Ment Health 1:149–157
Haberkern K, Szydlik M (2010) State care provision, societal opinion and children’s care of older parents in 11 European countries. Ageing Soc 30:299–323
Hammer E, Österle A (2003) Welfare state policy and informal long-term care giving in Austria: old gender divisions and new stratification processes among women. J Soc Policy 32:37–53
Hochschild AR (1995) The culture of politics: traditional, postmodern, cold-modern, and warm-modern ideals of care. Soc Politics 2:331–346
Hoefman RJ, van Exel NJ, de Jong SL, Redekop WK, Brouwer WB (2011) A new test of the construct validity of the CarerQoL instrument: measuring the impact of informal caregiving. Qual Life Res 20:875–887
Jacobs MT, Aartsen M, Deeg DJH, Broese van Groenou M (2016) Diversity in older adults’ care networks: the added value of psychological factors and social network proximity. J Geront B Psychol Sci Soc Sci. doi:10.1093/geronb/gbw012
Josten E, De Boer A (2015) Concurrentie tussen betaald werk en mantelzorg [Competition between paid work and informal care]. The National Institute for Social Research, The Hague, the Netherlands
Keating N, Otfinowski P, Wenger C, Fast J, Derksen L (2003) Understanding the caring capacity of informal networks of frail seniors: a case for care networks. Ageing Soc 23:115–127
Kooiker S and de Boer A (2008). Portretten van mantelzorgers [Portraits of informal caregivers]. The National Institute for Social Research, the Hague, the Netherlands
Lamura G et al (2008) Family Carers’ Experiences Using Support Services in Europe: empirical Evidence From the EUROFAMCARE Study. Gerontol 48:752–771
Lapierre TA, Keating N (2013) Characteristics and contributions of non-kin carers of older people: a closer look at friends and neighbours. Ageing Soc 33:1442–1468
Li LW (2004) Caregiving network compositions and use of supportive services by community-dwelling dependent elders. J Gerontol Soc Work 43:147–164
Li LW (2005) Longitudinal changes in the amount of informal care among publicly paid home care recipients. Gerontol 45:465–473
Litwak E (1985) Helping the Elderly: The complementary roles of informal networks and formal systems. Guilford Press, New York
Miller B (1990) Gender differences in spouse caregiver strain: socialization and role explanations. J Marriage Fam 52:311–321
NVR (2014). Brief aan de ministers van SZW en OCW en de staatssecretaris van VWS: decentralisatie van beleid en de gevolgen voor vrouwen [Letter to governmental departments on decentralization and the consequences for women]. Nederlandse Vrouwen Raad [National Women’s Council], the Hague, the Netherlands
Oudijk D, Woittiez I, De Boer A (2011) More family responsibility, more informal care? The effects of motivation on the giving of informal care by people aged 50 or over in the Netherlands compared to other European countries. Health Policy 101:228–235
Pavalko EK, Henderson KA (2006) Combining care work and paid work: do workplace policies make a difference? Res Aging 3:359–374
Pavolini E, Ranci C (2008) Restructuring the welfare state: reforms in long-term care in Western European countries. J Eur Soc Policy 18:246–259
Pearlin LI, Mullan JT, Semple SJ, Skaff MM (1990) Caregiving and the stress process: an overview of concepts and their measures. Gerontology 30:583–594
Peek CW, Zsembik BA, Coward RT (1997) The changing caregiving networks of older adults. Res Aging 19:333–361
Pezzin LE, Schone BS (1999) Parental marital disruption and intergenerational transfers: an analysis of lone elderly parents and their children. Demography 36:287–297
Pezzin LE, Pollak RA, Steinberg Schone B (2008) Parental marital disruption, family type, and transfers to disabled elderly parents. J Gerontol Soc Sci 63:S349–S358
Pillemer K, Suitor JJ (2006) Making choices: a within-family study of caregiver selection. Gerontol 46:439–448
Pillemer K, Suitor JJ (2013) Who provides care? A prospective study of caregiving among adult siblings. Gerontol 54:589–598
Pinquart M, Sörensen S (2002) Older adults’ preferences for informal, formal, and mixed support for future care needs: a comparison of Germany and the United States. Int J Aging Hum Dev 54:291–314
Plaisier I, Broese van Groenou M, Keuzenkamp S (2015) Combining work and informal care: the importance of caring organisations. Hum Res Manag J 25:267–280
Ryan LH, Smith J, Antonucci TC, Jackson JS (2012) Cohort differences in the availability of informal caregivers: are the Boomers at risk? Gerontol 52:177–188
Sadiraj K, Timmermans J, Ras M, De Boer A (2009) De toekomst van de mantelzorg [The future of informal care]. The National Institute for Social Research, the Hague, the Netherlands
Schulz R, Mittelmark M, Burton L, Hirsch C, Jackson S (1997) Health effects of caregiving: an ancillary study of the cardio vascular health study. Ann Beh Med 19:110–116
Seltzer J, Friedman EM (2014) Widowed mothers’ co-residence with adult children. J Gerontol Soc Sci 69:63–74
Silverstein M, Parrott TM, Bengtson VL (1995) Factors that predispose middle-aged sons and daughters to provide social support to their older parents. J Marriage Fam 57:465–476
Silverstein M, Conroy SJ, Gans D (2008) Commitment to caring: filial responsibility and the allocation of support by adult children to older mothers. In: Szinovacz ME, Davey A (eds) Caregiving contexts: cultural, familial, and societal implications. Springer Publishing Company, New York, pp 71–91
Smits A, van Gaalen R, Mulder CH (2010) Parent-child co-residence: who moves in with whom and for whose needs? J Marriage Fam 72:1022–1033
Stuifbergen MC, van Delden JJM, Dykstra PA (2008) The implications of today’s family structures for support giving to older parents. Ageing Soc 28:413–434
Suanet B, Broese van Groenou M, Van Tilburg T (2012) Informal and formal home-care use among older adults in Europe: can cross-national differences be explained by societal context and composition? Ageing Soc 32:491–515
Suanet B, Van Tilburg TG, Broese van Groenou MI (2013) Nonkin in older adults’ personal networks: more important among later cohorts? J Gerontol Soc Sci 68:633–643
Swinkels JC, Suanet B, Deeg DJH, Broese van Groenou M (2015) Trends in the informal and formal home care use of older adults in the Netherlands between 1992 and 2012. Ageing Soc. doi:10.1017/S0144686X1500077X
Szinvovacz ME, Davey A (2013) Prevalence and predictors of change in adult-child primary caregivers. Int J Aging Hum Dev 76:227–249
Tolkacheva N, Broese van Groenou MI, Van Tilburg TG (2010) Sibling Influence on care given by children to older parents. Res Aging 32:739–759
Tolkacheva T, Broese van Groenou MI, De Boer A, Van Tilburg T (2011) The impact of informal care-giving networks on adult children’s care-giver burden. Ageing Soc 31:34–51
Triantafillou J et al (2010) Informal care in the long-term care system. European Overview paper. Athens/Vienna: Interlinks. http://interlinks.euro.centre.org
Verbakel E (2014) Toenemende publieke steun voor meer eigen verantwoordelijkheid in de zorg? [Increasing public support for more responsibility in care?] Bestuurswetenschappen 68:3–23
Verbeek-Oudijk D, Woittiez I, Eggink E, Putman L (2014) Who cares in Europe? A comparison of long-term care for the over-50 s in sixteen European countries. National Institute for Social Research, The Hague