Magnesium for treatment-resistant depression: A review and hypothesis

World Health Report. Changing history annex table 3: burden of disease in DALYs by cause, sex and mortality stratum in WHO regions estimates for 2002. Geneva: The World Health Organization; 2004. Meyer, 2005 Szewczyk, 2008, Antidepressant activity of zinc and magnesium in view of the current hypotheses of antidepressant action, Pharmacol Rep, 60, 588 Fekadu, 2009, What happens to patients with treatment-resistant depression? A systematic review of medium to long term outcome studies, J Affect Disord, 116, 4, 10.1016/j.jad.2008.10.014 Bourre, 2006, Effects of nutrients (in food) on the structure and function of the nervous system: update on dietary requirements for brain part 1: micronutrients, J Nutr Health Aging, 10, 377 Eby, 2006, Rapid recovery from major depression using magnesium treatment, Med Hypotheses, 67, 362, 10.1016/j.mehy.2006.01.047 Jacka, 2009, Association between magnesium intake and depression and anxiety in community-dwelling adults: the Hordaland Health Study, Aust N Z J Psychiatry, 43, 45, 10.1080/00048670802534408 2002, Heart gains from whole grains, Harv Heart Lett, 13, 2 Seelig, 2003 Blaylock, 1999, Food additive excitotoxins and degenerative brain disorders, Med Sentinel, 4, 212 Walton, 1993, Adverse reactions to aspartame: double-blind challenge in patients from a vulnerable population, Biol Psychiatry, 34, 13, 10.1016/0006-3223(93)90251-8 Weston, 1921, Magnesium as a sedative, Am J Psychiatry, 1, 637 Connolly, 1999, Intravenous magnesium, Crit Care Resusc, 1, 162 Bear, 2001, Neurotransmitter systems, 131 Yasui, 1997, Magnesium-related neurological disorders, 219 Langley, 1991, Central nervous system magnesium deficiency, Arch Intern Med, 151, 593, 10.1001/archinte.1991.00400030123023 Langley, 1991, Skeletal buffer function and symptomatic magnesium deficiency, Med Hypotheses, 34, 62, 10.1016/0306-9877(91)90067-9 Macgregor, 2006, Quantum mechanics and brain uncertainty, J Integr Neurosci, 5, 373, 10.1142/S0219635206001215 Sapolsky, 1992 Iseri, 1984, Magnesium: nature’s physiologic calcium blocker, Am Heart J, 108, 188, 10.1016/0002-8703(84)90572-6 Mark, 2001, Pictorial review of glutamate excitotoxicity: fundamental concepts for neuroimaging, AJNR Am J Neuroradiol, 22, 1813 Kandel, 1995, Synaptic integration, 219 McMenimen, 2006, Probing the Mg2+ blockade site of an N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor with unnatural amino acid mutagenesis, ACS Chem Biol, 1, 227, 10.1021/cb6000944 Alberts, 2002 Decollogne, 1997, NMDA receptor complex blockade by oral administration of magnesium: comparison with MK-801, Pharmacol Biochem Behav, 58, 261, 10.1016/S0091-3057(96)00555-2 Carafoli, 2005, Calcium – a universal carrier of biological signals, FEBS J, 272, 1073, 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2005.04546.x Gillessen T, Budd SL, Lipton SA. Excitatory amino acid neurotoxicity. In: Alzheimer C, editor. Molecular and cellular biology of neuroprotection in the CNS series: advances in experimental medicine and biology, vol. 513. New York, NY: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, Georgetown, TX: Landes Bioscience; 2002. p. 3–40. Hollmann, 2001, Modulation of NMDA receptor function by ketamine and magnesium part II: interactions with volatile anesthetics, Anesth Analg, 92, 1182, 10.1097/00000539-200105000-00020 Durlach, 1997, Mechanisms of action on the nervous system in magnesium deficiency and dementia, 201 Krnjevic, 1979, Intracellular divalent cations and neuronal excitability, Can J Physiol Pharmacol, 57, 957, 10.1139/y79-145 Morris, 1992, Brain and CSF magnesium concentrations during magnesium deficit in animals and humans: neurological symptoms, Magnes Res, 5, 303 Murck, 2002, Magnesium and affective disorders, Nutr Neurosci, 5, 375, 10.1080/1028415021000039194 Held, 2002, Oral Mg(2+) supplementation reverses age-related neuroendocrine and sleep EEG changes in humans, Pharmacopsychiatry, 35, 135, 10.1055/s-2002-33195 Murck, 1998, Mg2+ reduces ACTH secretion and enhances spindle power without changing delta power during sleep in men – possible therapeutic implications, Psychopharmacology (Berl), 137, 247, 10.1007/s002130050617 Kantak, 1988, Magnesium deficiency alters aggressive behavior and catecholamine function, Behav Neurosci, 102, 304, 10.1037/0735-7044.102.2.304 Cardoso, 2009, Evidence for the involvement of the monoaminergic system in the antidepressant-like effect of magnesium, Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry., 33, 235, 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2008.11.007 Olney, 1970, Brain damage in infant mice following oral intake of glutamate aspartate or cysteine, Nature, 227, 609, 10.1038/227609b0 Olney, 1973, Letter: neurotoxic effects of glutamate, N Engl J Med, 289, 1374, 10.1056/NEJM197312202892519 Olney, 1973, Brain-damaging potential of protein hydrolysates, N Engl J Med, 289, 391, 10.1056/NEJM197308232890802 Olney, 1974, Kainic acid: a powerful neurotoxic analogue of glutamate, Brain Res, 77, 507, 10.1016/0006-8993(74)90640-4 Stein, 1992, An overview of developments in research on recovery from brain injury, 1 Fromm, 2004, Magnesium attenuates post-traumatic depression/anxiety following diffuse traumatic brain injury in rats, J Am Coll Nutr, 23, 529S, 10.1080/07315724.2004.10719396 Singewald, 2004, Magnesium-deficient diet alters depression- and anxiety-related behavior in mice – influence of desipramine and Hypericum perforatum extract, Neuropharmacology, 47, 1189, 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2004.08.010 Spasov, 2008, Depression-like and anxiety-related behaviour of rats fed with magnesium-deficient diet, Zh Vyssh Nerv Deiat Im I P Pavlova, 58, 476 Poleszak, 2004, Antidepressant- and anxiolytic-like activity of magnesium in mice, Pharmacol Biochem Behav, 78, 7, 10.1016/j.pbb.2004.01.006 Poleszak, 2005, Effects of acute and chronic treatment with magnesium in the forced swim test in rats, Pharmacol Rep, 57, 654 Poleszak, 2006, Immobility stress induces depression-like behavior in the forced swim test in mice. Effect of magnesium and imipramine, Pharmacol Rep, 58, 746 Poleszak, 2007, NMDA/glutamate mechanism of antidepressant-like action of magnesium in forced swim test in mice, Pharmacol Biochem Behav, 88, 158, 10.1016/j.pbb.2007.07.018 Ault, 1980, Selective depression of excitatory amino acid induced depolarizations by magnesium ions in isolated spinal cord preparations, J Physiol, 307, 413, 10.1113/jphysiol.1980.sp013443 Siwek, 2005, The role of copper and magnesium in the pathogenesis and treatment of affective disorders, Psychiatr Pol, 39, 911 Iosifescu, 2008, Brain bioenergetics and response to triiodothyronine augmentation in major depressive disorder, Biol Psychiatry, 63, 1127, 10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.11.020 Iotti, 2008, In vivo assessment of Mg2+ in human brain and skeletal muscle by 31P-MRS, Magnes Res, 21, 157 Gibbons, 1963, Electrolytes and depressive illness, Postgrad Med J, 39, 19, 10.1136/pgmj.39.447.19 Boursier, 1967, Nervous depression due to magnesium deficiency, crenotherapy by sulfur, calcium and magnesium water, Presse Therm Clim, 104, 174 Coppen, 1967, The biochemistry of affective disorders, Br J Psychiatry, 113, 1237, 10.1192/bjp.113.504.1237 Coppen, 1969, Electrolytes and mental illness – review, Proc Annu Meet Am Psychopathol Assoc, 58, 397 Fischbach, 1971, Changes in calcium and magnesium metabolism in depression and delirium tremens, Wien Med Wochenschr, 121, 292 Frazer, 1983, Plasma and erythrocyte electrolytes in affective disorders, J Affect Disord, 5, 103, 10.1016/0165-0327(83)90003-4 Frizel, 1969, Plasma magnesium and calcium in depression, Br J Psychiatry, 115, 1375, 10.1192/bjp.115.529.1375 Herzberg, 1972, Sex difference in mean serum-magnesium levels in depression, Lancet, 1, 1128, 10.1016/S0140-6736(72)91478-X Herzberg, 1977, Mood change and magnesium. A possible interaction between magnesium and lithium?, J Nerv Ment Dis, 165, 423, 10.1097/00005053-197712000-00008 Pavlinac, 1979, Magnesium in affective disorders, Biol Psychiatry, 14, 657 Wacker, 1968, Magnesium metabolism, N Engl J Med, 278, 772, 10.1056/NEJM196804042781406 Wacker, 1968, Magnesium metabolism, N Engl J Med, 278, 712, 10.1056/NEJM196803282781306 Wacker, 1968, Magnesium metabolism, N Engl J Med, 278, 658, 10.1056/NEJM196803212781205 Hashizume, 1990, An analysis of hypermagnesemia and hypomagnesemia, Jpn J Med, 29, 368, 10.2169/internalmedicine1962.29.368 Rasmussen, 1989, Depression and magnesium deficiency, Int J Psychiatry Med, 19, 57, 10.2190/NKCD-1RB1-QMA9-G1VN Seelig, 1975, Latent tetany and anxiety marginal magnesium deficit and normocalcemia, Dis Nerv Syst, 36, 461 Durlach, 2002, Chronopathological forms of magnesium depletion with hypofunction or with hyperfunction of the biological clock, Magnes Res, 15, 263 Durlach, 1984, Speculations on hormonal controls of magnesium homeostasis: a hypothesis, Magnesium, 3, 109 Durlach, 1995, Diverse applications of magnesium therapy Widmer, 1992, Evolution of blood magnesium sodium and potassium in depressed patients followed for three months, Neuropsychobiology, 26, 173, 10.1159/000118914 Widmer, 1993, Blood magnesium potassium sodium calcium and cortisol in drug-free depressed patients, Magnes Res, 6, 33 Widmer, 1995, Relationship between erythrocyte magnesium plasma electrolytes and cortisol and intensity of symptoms in major depressed patients, J Affect Disord, 34, 201, 10.1016/0165-0327(95)00018-I Barragan-Rodríguez, 2007, Depressive symptoms and hypomagnesemia in older diabetic subjects, Arch Med Res, 38, 752, 10.1016/j.arcmed.2007.03.008 Nechifor, 2008, Interactions between magnesium and psychotropic drugs, Magnes Res, 21, 97 Barra, 2007, Plasma magnesium level and psychomotor retardation in major depressed patients, Magnes Res, 20, 245 Linder, 1989, Calcium and magnesium concentrations in affective disorder: difference between plasma and serum in relation to symptoms, Acta Psychiatr Scand, 80, 527, 10.1111/j.1600-0447.1989.tb03021.x Imada, 2002, Relationships between serum magnesium levels and clinical background factors in patients with mood disorders, Psychiatry Clin Neurosci, 56, 509, 10.1046/j.1440-1819.2002.01046.x Cundall, 1972, Plasma and erythrocyte magnesium levels in affective disorders, Lancet, 2, 281, 10.1016/S0140-6736(72)91715-1 Shealy, 1992, The neurochemistry of depression, Am J Pain Manag, 2, 13 Nechifor, 2009, Magnesium in major depression, Magnes Res, 22, 163S, 10.1684/mrh.2009.0177 George, 1994, CSF magnesium in affective disorder: lack of correlation with clinical course of treatment, Psychiatry Res, 51, 139, 10.1016/0165-1781(94)90033-7 Banki, 1985, Cerebrospinal fluid magnesium and calcium related to amine metabolites, diagnosis, and suicide attempts, Biol Psychiatry, 20, 163, 10.1016/0006-3223(85)90076-9 Banki, 1986, Aminergic studies and cerebrospinal fluid cations in suicide, Ann N Y Acad Sci, 487, 221, 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1986.tb27901.x Hakim, 1975, A study of cerebrospinal fluid calcium and magnesium in depression, J Assoc Physicians India, 23, 311 Pliszka, 1984, Calcium and magnesium in children with schizophrenia and major depression, Biol Psychiatry, 19, 871 Levine, 1996, Serum and cerebrospinal levels of calcium and magnesium in acute versus remitted schizophrenic patients, Neuropsychobiology, 33, 169, 10.1159/000119272 Levine, 1999, High serum and cerebrospinal fluid Ca/Mg ratio in recently hospitalized acutely depressed patients, Neuropsychobiology, 39, 63, 10.1159/000026562 Levine, 2000, Increased cerebrospinal fluid glutamine levels in depressed patients, Biol Psychiatry, 47, 586, 10.1016/S0006-3223(99)00284-X Heath, 1998, Neuroprotective effects of MgSO4 and MgCl2 in closed head injury: a comparative phosphorus NMR study, J Neurotrauma, 15, 183, 10.1089/neu.1998.15.183 Stanton, 1987, Serum magnesium in women during pregnancy while taking contraceptives and after menopause, J Am Coll Nutr, 6, 313, 10.1080/07315724.1987.10720193 Wójcik, 2006, Antepartum/postpartum depressive symptoms and serum zinc and magnesium levels, Pharmacol Rep, 58, 571 Freeman, 2009, Complementary and alternative medicine for perinatal depression, J Affect Disord, 112, 1, 10.1016/j.jad.2008.06.017 Firoz, 2001, Bioavailability of US commercial magnesium preparations, Magnes Res, 14, 257 Lindberg, 1990, Magnesium bioavailability from magnesium citrate and magnesium oxide, J Am Coll Nutr, 9, 48, 10.1080/07315724.1990.10720349 Walker, 2003, Mg citrate found more bioavailable than other Mg preparations in a randomised double-blind study, Magnes Res, 16, 183 Joffe, 1996, The thyroid, magnesium and calcium in major depression, Biol Psychiatry, 40, 428, 10.1016/0006-3223(96)00063-7 Lee, 2002, Stress and depression: possible links to neuron death in the hippocampus, Bipolar Disord, 4, 117, 10.1034/j.1399-5618.2002.01144.x Seelig, 1994, Consequences of magnesium deficiency on the enhancement of stress reactions; preventive and therapeutic implications (a review), J Am Coll Nutr, 13, 429, 10.1080/07315724.1994.10718432 Cernak, 2000, Alterations in magnesium and oxidative status during chronic emotional stress, Magnes Res, 13, 29 Papadopol, 2001, Magnesium and some psychological features in two groups of pupils (magnesium and psychic features), Magnes Res, 14, 27 Reading, 1988, Family tree connection: how your past can shape your future health a lesson in orthomolecular medicine, J Orthomol Med, 3, 123 Grases, 2006, Anxiety and stress among science students. Study of calcium and magnesium alterations, Magnes Res, 19, 102 Dyrbye, 2008, Burnout and suicidal ideation among US medical students, Ann Intern Med, 149, 334, 10.7326/0003-4819-149-5-200809020-00008 Chouinard, 1990, A pilot study of magnesium aspartate hydrochloride (Magnesiocard) as a mood stabilizer for rapid cycling bipolar affective disorder patients, Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry, 14, 171, 10.1016/0278-5846(90)90099-3 Kalinin, 2004, A use of magnesium and vitamin B6 in the treatment of anxiety–depressive states in patients with epilepsy, Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova, 104, 51 Enya, 2004, Depressive state and paresthesia dramatically improved by intravenous MgSO4 in Gitelman’s syndrome, Intern Med, 43, 410, 10.2169/internalmedicine.43.410 Barragán-Rodríguez, 2008, Efficacy and safety of oral magnesium supplementation in the treatment of depression in the elderly with type 2 diabetes: a randomized, equivalent trial, Magnes Res, 21, 218 Carman, 1979, Calcium: bivalent cations in the bivalent psychoses, Biol Psychiatry, 14, 295 Jimerson, 1979, CSF calcium: clinical correlates in affective illness and schizophrenia, Biol Psychiatry, 14, 37 Paul, 2001, Antidepressant activity and calcium signaling cascades, Hum Psychopharmacol, 16, 71, 10.1002/hup.186 Keddie, 1987, Severe depressive illness in the context of hypervitaminosis D, Br J Psychiatry, 150, 394, 10.1192/bjp.150.3.394 Mann, 2002 Liebscher, 2004, About the misdiagnosis of magnesium deficiency, J Am Coll Nutr, 23, 730S, 10.1080/07315724.2004.10719416 Gambling, 1988, Magnesium and the anesthetist, Can J Anaesth, 35, 644, 10.1007/BF03020356 Aloosh, 2006, Seminal plasma magnesium and premature ejaculation: a case–control study, BJU Int, 98, 402, 10.1111/j.1464-410X.2006.06320.x Gatewood, 1975, Mental changes associated with hyperparathyroidism, Am J Psychiatry, 132, 129, 10.1176/ajp.132.2.129 Hermanussen, 2006, Obesity, voracity, and short stature: the impact of glutamate on the regulation of appetite, Eur J Clin Nutr, 60, 25, 10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602263 Schernhammer, 2005, Taking their own lives – the high rate of physician suicide, N Engl J Med, 352, 2473, 10.1056/NEJMp058014 Scholz-Ahrens, 2007, Inulin and oligofructose and mineral metabolism: the evidence from animal trials, J Nutr, 137, 2513S, 10.1093/jn/137.11.2513S Rondón, 2008, Dietary inulin in mice stimulates Mg2+ absorption and modulates TRPM6 and TRPM7 expression in large intestine and kidney, Magnes Res, 21, 224 Asvarujanon, 2004, Inhibitory effects of psyllium on rat mineral absorption were abolished by reduction of viscosity with partial hydrolysis, Biosci Biotechnol Biochem, 68, 1737, 10.1271/bbb.68.1737 Nasir, 2008, Effects of gum arabic (Acacia senegal) on water and electrolyte balance in healthy mice, J Ren Nutr, 18, 230, 10.1053/j.jrn.2007.08.004 Furia, 1968, Sequestrants in foods, 289 Heiden, 1999, Treatment of severe mania with intravenous magnesium sulphate as a supplementary therapy, Psychiatry Res, 89, 239, 10.1016/S0165-1781(99)00107-9 Galland, 1988, Magnesium and inflammatory bowel disease, Magnesium, 7, 78 Holmes, 1991, Effect of calcium ion uptake on Candida albicans morphology, FEMS Microbiol Lett, 61, 187, 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1991.tb04345.x Eby, 2006, Rescue treatment and prevention of asthma using magnesium throat lozenges: hypothesis for a mouth–lung biologically closed electric circuit, Med Hypotheses, 67, 1136, 10.1016/j.mehy.2006.05.010 Eby, 2009, Hypothesis for risk of death or serious sequela from pediatric asthmatic use of magnesium throat lozenges due to 8 to 310-fold rhinovirus release increase by concentrated magnesium, Med Hypotheses, 74, 206, 10.1016/j.mehy.2009.07.035 Wilson, 2009, Magnesium intake and depression, Aust N Z J Psychiatry, 43, 580 Jung KI, Ock SM, Chung JH, Song CH. Serum Mg level and serum Ca/Mg ratio may be involved in the mechanism for the progression of depressive mood or stress perception in relatively healthy, adult women. Biol Trace Elem Res 2009; June 19.