Naturally Selected Mate Preferences Appear to Be Androgen-Influenced: Evidence from Two Cultures
Tóm tắt
An “enhanced” evolutionary theory called evolutionary neuroandrogenic (ENA) theory argues that gender differences in cognitive and behavioral traits result from natural selection favoring gender differences in brain exposure to androgens. This implies that even within males and females, gender dimorphic cognitive and behavioral traits should correlate with androgen exposure. The present study tests this idea regarding mate preferences. Self-reported data were obtained from college students in Malaysia (N = 2058) and the USA (N = 2511). Twelve traits were assessed in terms of their importance for mate preferences. Ten indicators of androgen exposure were factor-analyzed, resulting in a two-factor solution. The first factor appeared to reflect bone growth and neurosexual influences, while the second factor pertained to muscularity and athletic motor skills. As reported by others, pronounced gender differences were found regarding mate preferences in both countries. Concerning androgenic influences, low scores on bone growth and neurosexual factor were associated with greater mate discrimination tendencies, especially regarding a prospective mate’s resource-provisioning capabilities. Preferences for physically attractive mates were positively associated with this factor in the USA but not in Malaysia. The muscularity/athletic factor correlated positively with the assessed importance of nearly all forms of mate preferences for both men and women in both countries. ENA theory correctly predicted associations between androgen exposure and mate preferences, although there appear to be some complex nuances in the nature of androgenic influences on cognitive and behavioral traits. Testing the theory’s predictive capabilities with other universal sex differences in behavior is in order.
Tài liệu tham khảo
Apostolou, M. (2007). Sexual selection under parental choice: the role of parents in the evolution of human mating. Evolution and Human Behavior, 28, 403–409.
Auyeung, B., Baron-Cohen, S., Ashwin, E., Knickmeyer, R., Taylor, K., Hackett, G., & Hines, M. (2009). Fetal testosterone predicts sexually differentiated childhood behavior in girls and in boys. Psychological Science, 20, 144–148.
Balmford, A., Rosser, A. M., & Albon, S. D. (1992). Correlates of female choice in resource-defending antelope. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 31, 107–114.
Baron-Cohen, S. (2008). Autism and Asperger syndrome. New York: Oxford University Press.
Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Stott, C., Bolton, P., & Goodyer, I. (1997). Is there a link between engineering and autism? Autism: An International Journal of Research and Practice, 1, 153–163.
Baron-Cohen, S., Knickmeyer, R. C., & Belmonte, M. K. (2005). Sex differences in the brain: implications for explaining autism. Science, 310, 819–823.
Bell, D. S., MacDonald, P. K., & Thayer, B. A. (2001). Start the evolution without us. International Security, 26, 187–198.
Benbow, C. P. (1988). Sex differences in mathematical reasoning ability in intellectually talented preadolescents: their nature, effects, and possible causes. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 11, 169–183.
Bereczkei, T., Voros, S., Gal, A., & Bernath, L. (1997). Resources, attractiveness, family commitment: reproductive decisions in human mate choice. Ethology, 103, 681–699.
Berenbaum, S. A., & Beltz, A. M. (2011). Sexual differentiation of human behavior: effects of prenatal and pubertal organizational hormones. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 32, 183–200.
Berenbaum, S. A., Bryk, K. K., Nowak, N., Quigley, C. A., & Moffat, S. (2009). Fingers as a marker of prenatal androgen exposure. Endocrinology, 150, 5119–5124.
Bettencourt, B., & Miller, N. (1996). Gender differences in aggression as a function of provocation: a meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 422–447.
Bhasin, S., Stores, T. W., Berman, N., Callegari, C., Clevenger, B., Phillips, J., Bunnell, T. J., Tricker, R., Shirazi, A., & Casaburi, R. (1996). The effects of supraphysiologic doses of testosterone on muscle size and strength in normal men. New England Journal of Medicine, 335, 1–7.
Blais, L., Lemiere, C., Jacob, A., & Lavoie, K. (2013). Reliability and accuracy of self-reported versus measured height, height, and body mass index in patients with asthma. American Journal of Respiratory Critical Care Medicine, 187, A4206.
Boyd, B. (1998). Jane, meet Charles: literature, evolution, and human nature. Philosophy and Literature, 22, 1–30.
Bradshaw, C., Kahn, A. S., & Saville, B. K. (2010). To hook up or date: which gender benefits? Sex Roles, 62, 661–669.
Breedlove, S. M. (2010). Mini-review: Organizational hypothesis: instances of the fingerpost. Endocrinology, 151, 4116–4122.
Breedlove, S. M., & Hampson, E. (2002). Sexual differentiation of the brain and behavior. In J. B. Becker, S. M. Breedlove, S. M. Crews, & D. M. McCathy (Eds.), Behavioral endocrinology (Vol. 2, pp. 360–369). Cambridge, MS: MIT Press.
Brown, W. M., Finn, C. J., Cooke, B. M., & Breedlove, S. M. (2002). Differences in finger length ratios between self-identified “butch” and “femme” lesbians. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 31, 123–127.
Buss, D. M. (1995). Evolutionary psychology: a new paradigm for psychological science. Psychological Inquiry, 6, 1–30.
Buss, D. M., & Schmitt, D. (1993). Sexual strategies theory: an evolutionary perspective on human mating. Psychological Review, 100, 204–232.
Buss, D. M., Shackelford, T. K., Kirkpatrick, L. A., & Larsen, R. J. (2001). A half century of mate preferences: the cultural evolution of values. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63, 491–503.
Buyken, A. E., Karaolis-Danckert, N., & Remer, T. (2009). Association of prepubertal body composition in healthy girls and boys with the timing of early and late pubertal markers. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 89, 221–230.
Cahill, L. (2006). Why sex matters for neuroscience. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 7, 477–484.
Cameron, D. (2010). Sex/gender, language and the new biologism. Applied Linguistics, 31, 173–192.
Collaer, M. L., & Hines, M. (1995). Human behavioral sex differences: a role for gonadal hormones during early development? Psychological Bulletin, 118, 55–107.
Confer, J. C., Easton, J. A., Fleischman, D. S., Goetz, C. D., Lewis, D. M., Perilloux, C., & Buss, D. M. (2010). Evolutionary psychology: controversies, questions, prospects, and limitations. American Psychologist, 65, 110–126.
Cotton, S., Small, J., & Pomiankowski, A. (2006). Sexual selection and condition-dependent mate preferences. Current Biology, 16, R755–R765.
Cox, D. (2007). Biological basics and the economics of the family. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 21, 91–108.
Crawford, C., & Krebs, D. (Eds.). (2012). Foundations of evolutionary psychology. New York: Psychology Press.
Crews, D., & Moore, M. C. (1986). Evolution of mechanisms controlling mating behavior. Science, 231(4734), 121–125.
Daly, M., & Wilson, M. (1978). Sex, evolution and behavior. North Scituate, Massachusetts: Duxbury Press.
Daly, M., & Wilson, M. I. (1999). Human evolutionary psychology and animal behaviour. Animal Behaviour, 57, 509–519.
Daly, R., Saxon, L., Turner, C., Robling, A., & Bass, S. (2004). The relationship between muscle size and bone geometry during growth and in response to exercise. Bone, 34, 281–287.
Demski, L. S. (1984). The evolution of neuroanatomical substrates of reproductive behavior: sex steroid and LHRH-specific pathways including the terminal nerve. American Zoologist, 24, 809–830.
Diekman, A. B., & Schneider, M. C. (2010). A social role theory perspective on gender gaps in political attitudes. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 34, 486–497.
DiPrete, T. A., & Buchmann, C. (2006). Gender-specific trends in the value of education and the emerging gender gap in college completion. Demography, 43, 1–24.
Eagly, A. H. (1997). Sex differences in social behavior: comparing social role theory and evolutionary psychology. American Psychologist, 52, 380–1383.
Eagly, A. H. (2013). Sex differences in social behavior: a social-role interpretation. New York: Psychology Press.
Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (1999). The origins of sex differences in human behavior: evolved dispositions versus social roles. American Psychologist, 54, 408–423.
Eagly, A. H., Wood, W., Diekman, A. B. (2000). Social role theory of sex differences and similarities: a current appraisal. The Developmental Social Psychology of Gender, 123–174.
Earl Gray, L., Wilson, V. S., Stoker, T., Lambright, C., Furr, J., Noriega, N., & Guillette, L. (2006). Adverse effects of environmental antiandrogens and androgens on reproductive development in mammals. International Journal of Andrology, 29, 96–104.
Edward, D. A., & Chapman, T. (2011). The evolution and significance of male mate choice. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 26(12), 647–654.
Ellis, L. (1995). Dominance and reproductive success among nonhuman animals: a cross-species comparison. Ethology and Sociobiology, 16, 257–333.
Ellis, L. (2001). The biosocial female choice theory of social stratification. Social Biology, 48, 298–320.
Ellis, L. (2003). Genes, criminality, and evolutionary neuroandrogenic theory. In A. Walsh & L. Ellis (Eds.), Biosocial criminology: challenging environmentalism’s supremacy (pp. 13–34). New York: Nova Science.
Ellis, L. (2005). Theoretically explaining biological correlates of criminal behavior. European Journal of Criminology, 2, 287–315.
Ellis, L. (2011a). Evolutionary neuroandrogenic theory and universal gender differences in cognition and behavior. Sex Roles, 64, 707–722.
Ellis, L. (2011b). Identifying and explaining apparent universal sex differences in cognition and behavior. Personality and Individual Differences, 51, 552–561.
Ellis, L., Hoskin, A. (2015). Criminality and the 2D:4D ratio: testing the prenatal androgen hypothesis. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 59, 295–312.
Ellis, L., & Nyborg, H. (1992). Racial/ethnic variations in male testosterone levels: a probable contributor to group differences in health. Steroids, 57, 72–75.
Ellis, L., Hershberger, S., Field, E., Wersinger, S., Pellis, S., Geary, D., Palmer, C., Hoyenga, K., Hetsroni, A., & Karadi, K. (2008). Sex differences: summarizing more than a century of scientific research. New York: Psychology Press.
Ellison, P. T., & Panter-Brick, C. (1996). Salivary testosterone levels among Tamang and Kami males of central Nepal. Human Biology, 68, 955–965.
Evans, S., Neave, N., & Waklin, D. (2006). Relationships between vocal characteristics and body size and shape in human males: an evolutionary explanation for a deep male voice. Biological Psychology, 72, 160–163.
Evers, A., Sieverding, M. (2013). Why do highly qualified women (still) earn less? Gender differences in long-term predictors of career success. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 0361684313498071.
Evuarherhe, O., Leggett, J. D., Waite, E. J., Kershaw, Y. M., Atkinson, H. C., & Lightman, S. L. (2009). Organizational role for pubertal androgens on adult hypothalamic‐pituitary‐adrenal sensitivity to testosterone in the male rat. Journal of Physiology, 587, 2977–2985.
Fausto-Sterling, A. (1992). Myths of gender: biological theories about women and men. New York: Basic Books.
Fink, B., Thanzami, V., Seydel, H., & Manning, J. T. (2006). Digit ratio and hand‐grip strength in German and Mizos men: cross‐cultural evidence for an organizing effect of prenatal testosterone on strength. American Journal of Human Biology, 18, 776–782.
Firebaugh, G., & Dorius, S. F. (2010). Trends in global gender inequality. Social Forces, 88, 1941–1968.
Forest, M. G. (2008). Role of androgens in fetal and pubertal development. Hormone Research in Pædiatrics, 18, 69–83.
Franke, G. R., Crown, D. F., & Spake, D. F. (1997). Gender differences in ethical perceptions of business practices: a social role theory perspective. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 920–934.
Galis, F., Ten Broek, C. M., Van Dongen, S., & Wijnaendts, L. C. (2010). Sexual dimorphism in the prenatal digit ratio (2D:4D). Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39, 57–62.
Gangestad, S. W., & Simpson, J. A. (2000). The evolution of human mating: trade-offs and strategic pluralism. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 23, 573–587.
Geary, D. C. (2010). Male, female: the evolution of human sex differences (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Geary, D. C., Vigil, J., & Byrd‐Craven, J. (2004). Evolution of human mate choice. Journal of Sex Research, 41, 27–42.
Gottfredson, L. S. (2003). The challenge and promise of cognitive career assessment. Journal of Career Assessment, 11, 115–135.
Gowaty, P. A. (2003). Sexual natures: how feminism changed evolutionary biology. Signs, 28(3), 901–921.
Granger, D. A., Shirtcliff, E. A., Booth, A., Kivlighan, K. T., & Schwartz, E. B. (2004). The “trouble” with salivary testosterone. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 29, 1229–1240.
Gray, P. B., & Garcia, J. R. (2013). Evolution and human sexual behavior. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Greenlees, I. A., & McGrew, W. C. (1994). Sex and age differences in preferences and tactics of mate attraction: analysis of published advertisements. Ethology and Sociobiology, 15, 59–72.
Grimbos, T., Dawood, K., Burriss, R. P., Zucker, K. J., & Puts, D. A. (2010). Sexual orientation and the second to fourth finger length ratio: a meta-analysis in men and women. Behavioral Neuroscience, 124, 278–287.
Harrison, L. A., & Lynch, A. B. (2005). Social role theory and the perceived gender role orientation of athletes. Sex Roles, 52, 227–236.
Hauth, I., Bruijn, Y. G., Staal, W., Buitelaar, J. K., & Rommelse, N. N. (2014). Testing the extreme male brain theory of autism spectrum disorder in a familial design. Autism Research, 7, 491–498.
Hell, B., & Paßler, K. (2011). Are occupational interests hormonally influenced? The 2D:4D-interest nexus. Personality and Individual Differences, 51, 376–380.
Hines, M. (2006). Prenatal testosterone and gender-related behaviour. European Journal of Endocrinology, 155, S115–S121.
Hirschenhauser, K., Frigerio, D., Grammer, K., & Magnusson, M. S. (2002). Monthly patterns of testosterone and behavior in prospective fathers. Hormones and Behavior, 42, 172–181.
Holcomb, H. R., III. (1996). Just so stories and inference to the best explanation in evolutionary psychology. Minds and Machines, 6, 525–540.
Hönekopp, J., & Schuster, M. (2010). A meta-analysis on 2D: 4D and athletic prowess: substantial relationships but neither hand out-predicts the other. Personality and Individual Differences, 48, 4–10.
Hönekopp, J., & Watson, S. (2010). Meta-analysis of digit ratio 2D:4D shows greater sex difference in the right hand. American Journal of Human Biology, 22, 619–630.
Hönekopp, J., Manning, J. T., & Müller, C. (2006). Digit ratio (2D:4D) and physical fitness in males and females: evidence for effects of prenatal androgens on sexually-selected traits. Hormones and Behavior, 49, 545–549.
Hrabovszky, Z., & Hutson, J. M. (2002). Androgen imprinting of the brain in animal models and humans with intersex disorders: review and recommendations. Journal of Urology, 168, 2142–2148.
Huxley, J. (1942). Evolution. The modern synthesis. London: Allen & Unwin.
Inglis, J. G., Vandenboom, R., & Gabriel, D. A. (2013). Sex-related differences in maximal rate of isometric torque development. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, 23, 1289–1294.
Jennions, M. D., & Petrie, M. (1997). Variation in mate choice and mating preferences: a review of causes and consequences. Biological Reviews, 72, 283–327.
Judge, T. A., & Livingston, B. A. (2008). Is the gap more than gender? A longitudinal analysis of gender, gender role orientation, and earnings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 994–1012.
Kanazawa, S., & Vandermassen, G. (2005). Engineers have more sons, nurses have more daughters: an evolutionary psychological extension of Baron-Cohen’s extreme male brain theory of autism. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 233, 589–599.
Kastlunger, B., Dressler, S. G., Kirchler, E., Mittone, L., & Voracek, M. (2010). Sex differences in tax compliance: differentiating between demographic sex, gender-role orientation, and prenatal masculinization (2D:4D). Journal of Economic Psychology, 31, 542–552.
Keller, M. C., & Miller, G. (2006). Resolving the paradox of common, harmful, heritable mental disorders: which evolutionary genetic models work best? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 29, 385–404.
Kenrick, D. T., & Keefe, R. C. (1992). Age preferences in mates reflect sex differences in human reproductive strategies. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 15, 75–91.
Kenrick, D. T., & Trost, M. R. (1987). A biosocial theory of heterosexual relationships. In K. Kelley (Ed.), Females, males, and sexuality: theories and research (pp. 59–100). Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
Kenrick, D. T., Sadalla, E. K., Groth, G., & Trost, M. R. (1990). Evolution, traits, and the stages of human courtship: qualifying the parental investment model. Journal of Personality, 58, 97–116.
Kenrick, D., Ackerman, J., & Ledlow, S. (2006). Evolutionary social psychology: adaptive predispositions and human culture. In J. Delamater (Ed.), Handbook of social psychology (pp. 103–122). New York: Springer.
Kimura, D. (1992). Sex differences in the brain. Scientific American, 267(3), 118–125.
Kirkpatrick, M., & Ryan, M. J. (1991). The evolution of mating preferences and the paradox of the lek. Nature, 350, 33–38.
Kokko, H., Brooks, R., Jennions, M. D., & Morley, J. (2003). The evolution of mate choice and mating biases. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B, 270, 653–664.
Langdon, D., McKittrick, G., Beede, D., Khan, B., & Doms, M. (2011). STEM: good jobs now and for the future. ESA Issue Brief# 03-11. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce.
Lee, S., Potamianos, A., & Narayanan, S. (1999). Acoustics of children’s speech: developmental changes of temporal and spectral parameters. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 105, 1455–1468.
Lombardo, M. V., Ashwin, E., Auyeung, B., Chakrabarti, B., Taylor, K., Hackett, G., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2012). Fetal testosterone influences sexually dimorphic gray matter in the human brain. Journal of Neuroscience, 32, 674–680.
Loos, R., Thomis, M., Maes, H., Beunen, G., Claessens, A., Derom, C., & Vlietinck, R. (1997). Gender-specific regional changes in genetic structure of muscularity in early adolescence. Journal of Applied Physiology, 82, 1802–1810.
Low, B. S. (2001). Why sex matters: a Darwinian look at human behavior. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Lubinski, D., & Benbow, C. P. (2006). Study of mathematically precocious youth after 35 years: uncovering antecedents for the development of math-science expertise. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1, 316–345.
Malina, R. M. (1978). Growth of muscle tissue and muscle mass. In F. Faulkner (Ed.), Human growth (pp. 273–294). New York: Springer.
Manning, J. T. (2011). Resolving the role of prenatal sex steroids in the development of digit ratio. Science Signaling, 108, 16143–16144.
Manning, J. T., & Fink, B. (2008). Digit ratio (2D:4D), dominance, reproductive success, asymmetry, and sociosexuality in the BBC internet study. American Journal of Human Biology, 20, 451–461.
Manning, J. T., Scutt, D., Wilson, J., & Lewis-Jones, D. I. (1998). The ratio of 2nd to 4th digit length: a predictor of sperm numbers and concentrations of testosterone, luteinizing hormone and oestrogen. Human Reproduction, 13, 3000–3004.
Manning, J. T., Fink, B., Neave, N., & Caswell, N. (2005). Photocopies yield lower digit ratios (2D:4D) than direct finger measurements. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 34, 329–333.
Manning, J. T., Churchill, A. J. G., & Peters, M. (2007a). The effects of sex, ethnicity, and sexual orientation on self-measured digit ratio (2D:4D). Archives of Sexual Behavior, 36, 223–233.
Manning, J. T., Morris, L., & Caswell, N. (2007b). Endurance running and digit ratio (2D:4D): implications for fetal testosterone effects on running speed and vascular health. American Journal of Human Biology, 19, 416–421.
Manning, J., Kilduff, L., & Trivers, R. (2013). Digit ratio (2D:4D) in Klinefelter’s syndrome. Andrology, 1, 94–99.
Marlowe, F. W. (2004). Mate preferences among Hadza hunter-gatherers. Human Nature, 15, 365–376.
Mayr, E. (1998). The evolutionary synthesis: perspectives on the unification of biology. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
McFadden, D., & Bracht, M. S. (2005). Sex differences in the relative lengths of metacarpals and metatarsals in gorillas and chimpanzees. Hormones and Behavior, 47, 99–111.
McIntyre, M. H. (2006). The use of digit ratios as markers for perinatal androgen action. Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology, 4, 1–9.
Mealey, L. (2000). Sex differences: developmental and evolutionary strategies. New York: Academic.
Medland, S. E., Zayats, T., Glaser, B., Nyholt, D. R., Gordon, S. D., Wright, M. J., et al. (2010). A variant in LIN28B is associated with 2D:4D finger-length ratio, a putative retrospective biomarker of prenatal testosterone exposure. American Journal of Human Genetics, 86, 519–525.
Mesoudi, A. (2011). Cultural evolution: how Darwinian theory can explain human culture and synthesize the social sciences. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Moore, F. R., Cassidy, C., Law Smith, M. J., & Perrett, D. I. (2006). The effects of female control of resources on sex-differentiated mate preferences. Evolution and Human Behavior, 27, 193–205.
Nesse, R. M. (2000). Is depression an adaptation? Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 14–20.
Neu, C. M., Rauch, F., Rittweger, J., Manz, F., & Schoenau, E. (2002). Influence of puberty on muscle development at the forearm. American Journal of Physiology, Endocrinology and Metabolism, 283, E103–E107.
Ng, S. P., Korda, R., Clements, M., Latz, I., Bauman, A., Bambrick, H., & Banks, E. (2011). Validity of self‐reported height and weight and derived body mass index in middle‐aged and elderly individuals in Australia. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 35, 557–563.
Perry, A. C., & Martin, L. (2014). Race differences in obesity and its relationship to the sex hormone milieu. Hormone Molecular Biology and Clinical Investigation, 19, 151–161.
Perusse, D. (1994). Mate choice in modern societies: testing evolutionary hypotheses with behavioral data. Human Nature, 5, 255–278.
Pizzari, T. (2003). Food, vigilance, and sperm: the role of male direct benefits in the evolution of female preferences in a polygamous bird. Behavioral Ecology, 14, 593–601.
Puts, D. A. (2010). Beauty and the beast: mechanisms of sexual selection in humans. Evolution and Human Behavior, 31, 157–175.
Puts, D. A., Apicella, C. L., & Cárdenas, R. A. (2012). Masculine voices signal men’s threat potential in forager and industrial societies. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 279, 601–609.
Putz, D. A., Gaulin, S. J. C., Sporter, R. J., & McBurney, D. H. (2004). Sex hormones and finger length: what does 2D:4D indicate? Evolution and Human Behavior, 25, 182–199.
Ridgeway, C. L. (2006). Gender as an organizing force in social relations: implications for the future of inequality. In F. D. Blau, M. C. Brinton, & D. B. Grusky (Eds.), The declining significance of gender (pp. 265–287). New York: Russell Sage.
Rose, M. R., & Oakley, T. H. (2007). The new biology: beyond the modern synthesis. Biology Direct, 2, 30–47.
Ryan, M. J., & Rand, A. S. (1993). Sexual selection and signal evolution: the ghost of biases past. Philosophical Translations of the Royal Society of London, B, 340, 187–195.
Sanderson, S. K., & Ellis, L. (1992). Theoretical and political perspectives of American sociologists in the 1990s. The American Sociologist, 23, 26–42.
Schmitt, D. P. (2003). Universal sex differences in the desire for sexual variety: tests from 52 nations, 6 continents, and 13 islands. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(1), 85–104.
Schmitt, D. P., & Pilcher, J. J. (2004). Evaluating evidence of psychological adaptation: how do we know one when we see one? Psychological Science, 15, 643–649.
Schulz, K. M., Molenda-Figueira, H. A., & Sisk, C. L. (2009). Back to the future: the organizational-activational hypothesis adapted to puberty and adolescence. Hormones and Behavior, 55, 597–604.
Seeman, E., Hopper, J. L., Young, N. R., Formica, C., Goss, P., & Tsalamandris, C. (1996). Do genetic factors explain associations between muscle strength, lean mass, and bone density? A twin study. American Journal of Physiology, 270, E320–E327.
Shackelford, T. K., Schmitt, D. P., & Buss, D. M. (2005). Universal dimensions of human mate preferences. Personality and Individual Differences, 39, 447–458.
Simon, H. A. (1980). The behavioral and social sciences. Science, 209, 72–78.
Simonton, D. K. (2008). Scientific talent, training, and performance: intellect, personality, and genetic endowment. Review of General Psychology, 12, 28–46.
Sinervo, B., Miles, D. B., Frankino, W. A., Klukowski, M., & DeNardo, D. F. (2000). Testosterone, endurance, and Darwinian fitness: natural and sexual selection on the physiological bases of alternative male behaviors in side-blotched lizards. Hormones and Behavior, 38, 222–233.
Singh, D. (1993). Adaptive significance of waist-to-hip ratio and female physical attractiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 293–307.
Sprecher, S., Sullivan, Q., & Hatfield, E. (1994). Mate selection preferences: gender differences examined in a national sample. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 1074–1080.
Swerdloff, R. S., Wang, C., Hines, M., & Gorski, R. (1992). Effect of androgens on the brain and other organs during development and aging. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 17, 375–383.
Talarovičová, A., Kršková, L., & Blažeková, J. (2009). Testosterone enhancement during pregnancy influences the 2D: 4D ratio and open field motor activity of rat siblings in adulthood. Hormones and Behavior, 55, 235–239.
Tappé, M., Bensman, L., Hayashi, K., & Hatfield, E. (2013). Gender differences in receptivity to sexual offers: a new research prototype. Interpersonal: An International Journal on Personal Relationships, 7, 323–344.
Temfemo, A., Hugues, J., Chardon, K., Mandengue, S.-H., & Ahmaidi, S. (2009). Relationship between vertical jumping performance and anthropometric characteristics during growth in boys and girls. European Journal of Pediatrics, 168, 457–464.
Thomas, J. R., & French, K. E. (1985). Gender differences across age in motor performance: a meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 98, 260–282.
Thor, D. H., & Holloway, W. R. (1985). Play soliciting behavior in prepubertal and postpubertal male rats. Animal Learning & Behavior, 13, 327–330.
Toga, A. W., & Thompson, P. M. (2005). Genetics of brain structure and intelligence. Annual Review in Neuroscience, 28, 1–23.
Townsend, J. M., Kline, J., & Wasserman, T. H. (1995). Low-investment copulation: sex differences in motivation and emotional reactions. Ethology and Sociobiology, 16, 25–51.
Travis, C. B. (2003). Talking evolution and selling difference. In C. B. Travis (Ed.), Evolution, gender, and rape (pp. 3–27). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Trivers, R. L. (1972). Parental investment and sexual selection. In B. Campbell (Ed.), Sexual selection and the descent of man 1871–1971 (pp. 136–179). Chicago: Aldine.
Trivers, R., Manning, J., & Jacobson, A. (2006). A longitudinal study of digit ratio (2D:4D) and other finger ratios in Jamaican children. Hormones and Behavior, 49, 150–156.
Udry, J. R. (1994). The nature of gender. Demography, 31, 561–573.
van Anders, S. M., Vernon, P. A., & Wilbur, C. J. (2006). Finger-length ratios show evidence of prenatal hormone-transfer between opposite-sex twins. Hormones and Behavior, 49, 315–319.
Van Praagh, E., Fellmann, N., Bedu, M., Falgairette, G., & Coudert, J. (1990). Gender difference in the relationship of anaerobic power output to body composition in children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 2, 336–348.
Vergne, J. P., & Durand, R. (2010). The missing link between the theory and empirics of path dependence: conceptual clarification, testability issue, and methodological implications. Journal of Management Studies, 47, 736–759.
Vitzthum, V. J., Worthman, C. M., Beall, C. M., Thornburg, J., Vargas, E., Villena, M., & Spielvogel, H. (2009). Seasonal and circadian variation in salivary testosterone in rural Bolivian men. American Journal of Human Biology, 21, 762–768.
Voracek, M., Dressler, S. G., & Manning, J. T. (2007). Evidence for assortative mating on digit ratio (2D:4D), a biomarker for prenatal androgen exposure. Journal of Biosocial Science, 39, 599–612.
Waynforth, D., & Dunbar, R. I. M. (1995). Conditional mate choice in humans: evidence from lonely hearts advertisements. Behaviour, 132, 735–739.
Wiederman, M. W. (1993). Evolved gender differences in mate preferences: evidence from personal advertisements. Ethology and Sociobiology, 14, 331–351.
Wiley, R. H., & Poston, J. (1996). Indirect mate choice, competition for mates and coevolution of the sexes. Evolution, 50, 1371–1381.
Williams, T. J., Pepitone, M. E., Christensen, S. E., Cooke, B. M., Huberman, A. D., Breedlove, N. J., et al. (2000). Finger-length ratios and sexual orientation. Nature, 404, 455–456.
Williams, M. J., Paluck, E. L., & Spencer‐Rodgers, J. (2010). The masculinity of money: automatic stereotypes predict gender differences in estimated salaries. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 34(1), 7–20.
Woodhouse, L. J., Reisz-Porszasz, S., Javanbakht, M., Storer, T. W., Lee, M., Zerounian, H., & Bhasin, S. (2003). Development of models to predict anabolic response to testosterone administration in healthy young men. American Journal of Physiology, Endocrinology and Metabolism, 284, E1009–E1017.
Zheng, Z., & Cohn, M. J. (2011). Developmental basis of sexually dimorphic digit ratios. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108, 16289–16294.