Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: Dietary Fatty Acids

Elsevier BV - Tập 107 Số 9 - Trang 1599.e1-1599.e15 - 2007

Tài liệu tham khảo

2007, Nutrition recommendations and interventions for diabetes, Diabetes Care, 30, S48, 10.2337/dc07-S048 De Backer, 2003, European guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice, Eur Heart J, 24, 1601, 10.1016/S0195-668X(03)00347-6 Priori, 2003, Update of the guidelines on sudden cardiac death of the European Society of Cardiology, Eur Heart J, 24, 13, 10.1016/S0195-0668X(02)00809-6 Van de Werf, 2003, Task Force on the Management of Acute Myocardial Infarction of the European Society of Cardiology, Eur Heart J, 24, 28 Lichtenstein, 2006, Diet and Lifestyle Recommendations Revision 2006: A Scientific Statement from the American Heart Association Nutrition Committee, Circulation, 114, 82, 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.176158 Kris-Etherton, 2002, AHA Scientific Statement: Fish consumption, fish oil, omega-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease, Circulation, 106, 2747, 10.1161/01.CIR.0000038493.65177.94 2002, National Cholesterol Education Program 2002, National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III) final report, Circulation, 106, 3143, 10.1161/circ.106.25.3143 2005 2004 2003, FAO/WHO Technical Report No. 916 2002 Hotamisligil, 2006, Inflammation and metabolic disorders, Nature, 444, 860, 10.1038/nature05485 American Dietetic Association. Hyperlipidemia Evidence Analysis Library. Available at: http://ebg/adaevidencelibrary.com/template.cfm?template=bibliography&key=224. Accessed October 15, 2005. Dietitians of Canada. Practice-Based Evidence in Nutrition. Available at: http://www.dieteticsatwork.com/pen. Accessed January 14, 2007. US Department of Agriculture. Nutrient Data Lab. Available at: http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/. Accessed January 14, 2007. Health Canada. Canadian Nutrient File. Available at: http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/nutrition/fiche-nutri-data/index_e.html. Accessed January 14, 2007. KIM (Keep It Managed) Software Program for omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acid content of foods. Available at: http://efaeducation.nih.gov/sig/kim1.html. Accessed January 14, 2007. Health Canada. Available at: http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/index_e.html. Accessed January 14, 2007. US Department of Agriculture, US Department of Health and Human Services. 2005 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee Report. Available at: http://www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/dga2005/report/. Accessed October 15, 2005. 1999, A review of the relationship between dietary fat and cardiovascular disease, Aust J Nutr Diet, 56, S5 Nesheim, 2007 Obarzanek, 2001, Effects on blood lipids of a blood pressure-lowering diet: The Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) Trial, Am J Clin Nutr, 74, 80, 10.1093/ajcn/74.1.80 Jenkins, 2003, Effects of a dietary portfolio of cholesterol-lowering foods vs lovastatin on serum lipids and C-reactive protein, JAMA, 290, 502, 10.1001/jama.290.4.502 Gardner, 2005, The effect of a plant-based diet on plasma lipids in hypercholesterolemic adults: A randomized trial, Ann Int Med, 142, 725, 10.7326/0003-4819-142-9-200505030-00007 Appel, 2005, Effects of protein, monounsaturated fat, and carbohydrate intake on blood pressure and serum lipids: Results of the OmniHeart randomized trial, JAMA, 294, 2455, 10.1001/jama.294.19.2455 Hu, 1997, Dietary fat intake and the risk of coronary heart disease in women, N Engl J Med, 337, 1491, 10.1056/NEJM199711203372102 Pischon, 2003, Habitual dietary intake of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids in relation to inflammatory markers among US men and women, Circulation, 108, 155, 10.1161/01.CIR.0000079224.46084.C2 Tanasescu, 2004, Dietary fat and cholesterol and the risk of cardiovascular disease among women with type 2 diabetes, Am J Clin Nutr, 79, 999, 10.1093/ajcn/79.6.999 Salmeron, 2001, Dietary fat intake and risk of type 2 diabetes in women, Am J Clin Nutr, 73, 1019, 10.1093/ajcn/73.6.1019 Sacks, 2002, Randomized clinical trials on the effects of dietary fat and carbohydrate on plasma lipoproteins and cardiovascular disease, Am J Med, 113, 13S, 10.1016/S0002-9343(01)00987-1 2001, Nutrition and diet for healthy lifestyles in Europe: Science and policy implications Hamazaki, 2003, The Japan Society for Lipid Nutrition recommends to reduce the intake of linoleic acid, World Rev Nutr Diet, 92, 109, 10.1159/000073796 International Society for the Study of Fatty Acids and Lipids. Adequate Intakes. Available at: http://www.issfal.org.uk/adequate-intakes.html. Accessed July 10, 2007. Reaven, 1994, Effects of linoleate-enriched and oleate-enriched diets in combination with alpha-tocopherol on the susceptibility of LDL and LDL subfractions to oxidative modification in humans, Arterioscler Thromb, 14, 557, 10.1161/01.ATV.14.4.557 Calder, 2006, Polyunsaturated fatty acids and inflammation, Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids, 75, 197, 10.1016/j.plefa.2006.05.012 Akabas, 2006, Summary of a workshop on n-3 fatty acids: Current status of recommendations and future directions, Am J Clin Nutr, 83, 1536S, 10.1093/ajcn/83.6.1536S Harris, 2006, Tissue omega-6/omega-3 fatty acid ratio and risk for coronary heart disease, Am J Cardiol, 98, 19i, 10.1016/j.amjcard.2005.12.023 Ernst, 1997, Consistency between US dietary fat intake and serum total cholesterol concentrations: The National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys, Am J Clin Nutr, 66, 965S, 10.1093/ajcn/66.4.965S Franz, 2004, Nutrition principles and recommendations in diabetes, Diabetes Care, 27, S36 Gardner, 1995, Monounsaturated versus polyunsaturated dietary fat and serum lipids, Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 15, 1917, 10.1161/01.ATV.15.11.1917 Ferrucci, 2006, Relationship of plasma polyunsaturated fatty acids to circulating inflammatory markers, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 91, 439, 10.1210/jc.2005-1303 2004 Health Canada. Advisory. Information on mercury levels in fish. Available at: http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ahc-asc/media/advisories-avis/2002/2002_41_e.html. Accessed January 14, 2007. Mozaffarian, 2006, Fish intake, contaminants, and human health, JAMA, 296, 1885, 10.1001/jama.296.15.1885 Raiten DJ, Talbot JM, Waters JH. Life Sciences Research Office Report. Executive summary of the report: Assessment of nutrient requirements for infant formulas. Available at: http://www.nutritioninmedicine.com/PDF/Handouts/TermInfantHandout.pdf. Accessed July 10, 2007. Willerson, 2004, Inflammation as a cardiovascular risk factor, Circulation, 109, II2, 10.1161/01.CIR.0000129535.04194.38 Posner, 1991, Dietary lipid predictors of coronary heart disease in men, Arch Intern Med, 151, 1181, 10.1001/archinte.1991.00400060105018 Keys, 1970, Coronary heart disease in seven countries, Circulation, 41, I1 Schaefer, 2002, Lipoproteins, nutrition, and heart disease, Am J Clin Nutr, 75, 191, 10.1093/ajcn/75.2.191 Keys, 1965, Serum cholesterol response to changes in the diet, Metabolism, 14, 776, 10.1016/0026-0495(65)90004-1 Hegsted, 1965, Quantitative effects of dietary fat on serum cholesterol in man, Am J Clin Nutr, 17, 281, 10.1093/ajcn/17.5.281 Mensink, 1992, Effect of dietary fatty acids on serum lipids and lipoproteins, Arterioscler Thromb, 12, 911, 10.1161/01.ATV.12.8.911 Mensink, 2003, Effects of dietary fatty acids and carbohydrates on the ratio of serum total to HDL cholesterol and on serum lipids and apolipoproteins: A meta-analysis of 60 controlled trials, Am J Clin Nutr, 77, 1146, 10.1093/ajcn/77.5.1146 Criqui, 1998, Epidemiologic aspects of lipid abnormalities, Am J Med, 105, 48S, 10.1016/S0002-9343(98)00212-5 Castelli, 1992, Lipids and risk of coronary heart disease, Ann Epidemiol, 2, 23, 10.1016/1047-2797(92)90033-M Kris-Etherton, 1997, Individual fatty acid effects on plasma lipids and lipoproteins: Human studies, Am J Clin Nutr, 65, 1628S, 10.1093/ajcn/65.5.1628S Kris-Etherton, 1999, AHA Science Advisory: Monounsaturated fatty acids and risk of cardiovascular disease, Circulation, 100, 1253, 10.1161/01.CIR.100.11.1253 Garg, 1998, High-monounsaturated-fat diets for patients with diabetes mellitus: A meta-analysis, Am J Clin Nutr, 67, 577S, 10.1093/ajcn/67.3.577S Nkondjock, 2003, Assessment of risk associated with specific fatty acids and colorectal cancer among French-Canadians in Montreal: A case-control study, Int J Epidemiol, 32, 200, 10.1093/ije/dyg048 Kushi, 2002, Dietary fat and cancer, Am J Med, 113, 63S, 10.1016/S0002-9343(01)00994-9 Lipworth, 1997, Olive oil and human cancer: An assessment of the evidence, Prev Med, 26, 181, 10.1006/pmed.1996.9977 Saadatian-Elahi, 2004, Biomarkers of dietary fatty acid intake and the risk of breast cancer: A meta-analysis, Int J Cancer, 111, 584, 10.1002/ijc.20284 Lada, 2003, Dietary monounsaturated versus polyunsaturated fatty acids: Which is really better for protection from coronary heart disease?, Curr Opin Lipidol, 14, 41, 10.1097/00041433-200302000-00008 Baylin, 2003, High 18:2 trans-fatty acids in adipose tissue are associated with increased risk of nonfatal acute myocardial infarction in Costa Rican adults, J Nutr, 133, 1186, 10.1093/jn/133.4.1186 Lemaitre, 2002, Cell membrane trans-fatty acids and the risk of primary cardiac arrest, Circulation, 105, 697, 10.1161/hc0602.103583 Pietinen, 1997, Intake of fatty acids and risk of coronary heart disease in a cohort of Finnish men, Am J Epidemiol, 145, 876, 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a009047 Kromhout, 1995, Dietary saturated and trans fatty acids and cholesterol and 25-year mortality from coronary heart disease: The Seven Countries Study, Prev Med, 24, 308, 10.1006/pmed.1995.1049 Ascherio, 1994, Trans-fatty acids intake and risk of myocardial infarction, Circulation, 89, 94, 10.1161/01.CIR.89.1.94 Sun, 2007, A prospective study of trans fatty acids in erythrocytes and risk of coronary heart disease, Circulation, 115, 1858, 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.679985 Mozaffarian, 2004, Trans fatty acids and systemic inflammation in heart failure, Am J Clin Nutr, 80, 1521, 10.1093/ajcn/80.6.1521 Gatto, 2003, Postprandial effects of dietary trans fatty acids on apolipoprotein(a) and cholesteryl ester transfer, Am J Clin Nutr, 77, 1119, 10.1093/ajcn/77.5.1119 Mauger, 2003, Effect of different forms of dietary hydrogenated fats on LDL particle size, Am J Clin Nutr, 78, 370, 10.1093/ajcn/78.3.370 Mozaffarian, 2006, Trans fatty acids—Effects on systemic inflammation and endothelial function, Atheroscler Suppl, 7, 29, 10.1016/j.atherosclerosissup.2006.04.007 Mozaffarian, 2006, Trans fatty acids and cardiovascular disease, N Engl J Med, 354, 1601, 10.1056/NEJMra054035 Bakker, 2003, Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids at birth and cognitive function at 7 y of age, Eur J Clin Nutr, 57, 89, 10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601506 Bakker, 1997, Adipose fatty acids and cancers of the breast, prostate and colon: An ecological study, Int J Cancer, 72, 587, 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0215(19970807)72:4<587::AID-IJC6>3.0.CO;2-M Kohlmeier, 1997, Adipose tissue trans fatty acids and breast cancer in the European Community Multicenter Study on Antioxidants, Myocardial Infarction, and Breast Cancer, Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev, 6, 705 Ip, 1996, Trans fatty acids and cancer, Nutr Rev, 54, 138, 10.1111/j.1753-4887.1996.tb03916.x Hu, 2001, Diet and risk of type II diabetes: The role of types of fat and carbohydrate, Diabetologia, 44, 805, 10.1007/s001250100547 Rainer, 2004, Conjugated linoleic acid: Health implications and effects on body composition, J Am Diet Assoc, 104, 963, 10.1016/j.jada.2004.03.016 Moloney, 2004, Conjugated linoleic acid supplementation, insulin sensitivity, and lipoprotein metabolism in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus, Am J Clin Nutr, 80, 887, 10.1093/ajcn/80.4.887 Riserus, 2002, Supplementation with conjugated linoleic acid causes isomer-dependent oxidative stress and elevated C-reactive protein: A potential link to fatty acid-induced insulin resistance, Circulation, 106, 1925, 10.1161/01.CIR.0000033589.15413.48 Riserus, 2004, Effects of cis-9,trans-11 conjugated linoleic acid supplementation on insulin sensitivity, lipid peroxidation, and proinflammatory markers in obese men, Am J Clin Nutr, 80, 279, 10.1093/ajcn/80.2.279 Masters, 2002, Maternal supplementation with CLA decreases milk fat in humans, Lipids, 37, 133, 10.1007/s11745-002-0872-8 Ritzenthaler, 2005, Consumption of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA)-enriched cheese does not alter milk fat or immunity in lactating women, J Nutr, 135, 422, 10.1093/jn/135.3.422 Goyens, 2006, Conversion of α-linolenic acid in humans is influenced by the absolute amounts of α-linolenic acid and linoleic acid in the diet and not by their ratio, Am J Clin Nutr, 84, 44, 10.1093/ajcn/84.1.44 Eckel, 2007, Understanding the Complexity of Trans Fatty Acid Reduction in the American Diet, Circulation, 115, 2220, 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.181947 Harris, 2007, Tissue n-3 and n-6 fatty acids and risk for coronary heart disease events, Arthrosclerosis, 193, 1, 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2007.03.018 Dayton, 1969, A controlled clinical trial of a diet high in unsaturated fat in preventing complications of atherosclerosis, Circulation, 40, 1 Turpeinen, 1979, Dietary prevention of coronary heart disease: The Finnish Mental Hospital Study, Int J Epidemiol, 8, 99, 10.1093/ije/8.2.99 Leren, 1970, The Oslo-Diet Heart Study: Eleven-year report, Circulation, 42, 935, 10.1161/01.CIR.42.5.935 Xiao, 2006, Differential effects of monounsaturated, polyunsaturated and saturated fat ingestion on glucose-stimulated insulin secretion, sensitivity and clearance in overweight and obese, non-diabetic humans, Diabetologia, 49, 1371, 10.1007/s00125-006-0211-x Trevisan, 1990, Consumption of olive oil, butter, and vegetable oils and coronary heart disease risk factors, JAMA, 263, 688, 10.1001/jama.1990.03440050082038 2003, Clinical practice guidelines for the prevention and management of diabetes in Canada, Can J Diabetes, 27, S1 Zock, 1998, Linoleic acid intake and cancer risk: A review and meta-analysis, Am J Clin Nutr, 68, 142, 10.1093/ajcn/68.1.142 Shoda, 1996, Epidemiologic analysis of Crohn disease in Japan: Increased dietary intake of n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids and animal protein relates to the increased incidence of Crohn disease in Japan, Am J Clin Nutr, 63, 741, 10.1093/ajcn/63.5.741 Sturdevant, 1973, Increased prevalence of cholelithiasis in men ingesting a serum-cholesterol-lowering diet, N Engl J Med, 288, 24, 10.1056/NEJM197301042880106 Pearce, 1971, Incidence of cancer in men on a diet high in polyunsaturated fat, Lancet, 1, 464, 10.1016/S0140-6736(71)91086-5 Tsai, 2004, The effect of long-term intake of cis unsaturated fats on the risk for gallstone disease in men: A prospective cohort study, Ann Intern Med, 141, 514, 10.7326/0003-4819-141-7-200410050-00007 Lands, 2003, Primary prevention in cardiovascular disease: Moving out of the shadows of the truth about death, Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis, 13, 154, 10.1016/S0939-4753(03)80175-8 Calder, 2002, Polyunsaturated fatty acids, inflammation and immunity, Eur J Clin Nutr, 56, S14, 10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601478 Tsimikas, 1998, The role of dietary fatty acids in lipoprotein oxidation and atherosclerosis, Curr Opin Lipidol, 9, 301, 10.1097/00041433-199808000-00003 Simopoulos, 2001, Evolutionary aspects of diet and essential fatty acids, World Rev Nutr Diet, 88, 18, 10.1159/000059742 Simopoulos, 1999, Essential fatty acids in health and chronic disease, Am J Clin Nutr, 70, 560S, 10.1093/ajcn/70.3.560s Salem, 1996, Arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acids are biosynthesized from their 18-carbon precursors in human infants, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 93, 49, 10.1073/pnas.93.1.49 Pawlosky, 2003, Effects of beef- and fish-based diets on the kinetics of n-3 fatty acid metabolism in human subjects, Am J Clin Nutr, 77, 565, 10.1093/ajcn/77.3.565 Hussein, 2005, Long-chain conversion of [13C]linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid in response to marked changes in their dietary intake in men, J Lipid Res, 46, 269, 10.1194/jlr.M400225-JLR200 Goyens, 2005, Compartmental modeling to quantify alpha-linolenic acid conversion after longer term intake of multiple tracer boluses, J Lipid Res, 46, 1474, 10.1194/jlr.M400514-JLR200 2004 Djousse, 2001, Relation between dietary linolenic acid and coronary artery disease in the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Family Heart Study, Am J Clin Nutr, 74, 612, 10.1093/ajcn/74.5.612 Hu, 1999, Dietary intake of alpha-linolenic acid and fatal ischemic heart disease among women, Am J Clin Nutr, 69, 890, 10.1093/ajcn/69.5.890 Dolecek, 1992, Epidemiological evidence of relationships between dietary poly-unsaturated fatty acids and mortality in the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial, Proc Soc Exp Biol Med, 200, 177, 10.3181/00379727-200-43413 Albert, 2005, Dietary alpha-linolenic acid intake and risk of sudden cardiac death and coronary heart disease, Circulation, 112, 3232, 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.572008 de Lorgeril, 1999, Mediterranean diet, traditional risk factors and the rate of cardiovascular complications after myocardial infarction: Final report of the Lyon Diet Heart Study, Circulation, 99, 779, 10.1161/01.CIR.99.6.779 Mozaffarian, 2005, Interplay between different polyunsaturated fatty acids and risk of coronary heart disease in men, Circulation, 111, 157, 10.1161/01.CIR.0000152099.87287.83 Brouwer, 2004, Dietary alpha-linolenic acid is associated with reduced risk of fatal coronary heart disease, but increased prostate cancer risk: A meta-analysis, J Nutr, 134, 919, 10.1093/jn/134.4.919 Koralek, 2006, A prospective study of dietary alpha-linolenic acid and the risk of prostate cancer (United States), Cancer Causes Control, 17, 783, 10.1007/s10552-006-0014-x de Lorgeril, 2004, Α-linolenic acid, coronary heart disease, and prostate cancer, J Nutr, 134, 3385, 10.1093/jn/134.12.3385 Christensen, 2005, n-3 Fatty acids and ventricular arrhythmias in patients with ischaemic heart disease and implantable cardioverter defibrillators, Europace, 7, 338, 10.1016/j.eupc.2005.02.118 Schrepf, 2004, Immediate effects of n-3 fatty acid infusion on the induction of sustained ventricular tachycardia, Lancet, 363, 1441, 10.1016/S0140-6736(04)16105-9 Brouwer, 2006, Intake of very long-chain n-3 fatty acids from fish and incidence of atrial fibrillation, Am Heart J, 151, 857, 10.1016/j.ahj.2005.07.029 Mozaffarian, 2003, Cardiac benefits of fish consumption may depend on the type of fish meal consumed: The Cardiovascular Health Study, Circulation, 107, 1372, 10.1161/01.CIR.0000055315.79177.16 Hu, 2002, Fish and omega-3 fatty acid intake and risk of coronary heart disease in women, JAMA, 287, 1815, 10.1001/jama.287.14.1815 Siscovick, 2000, Dietary intake of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and the risk of primary cardiac arrest, Am J Clin Nutr, 71, 208S, 10.1093/ajcn/71.1.208S Albert, 1998, Fish consumption and risk of sudden cardiac death, JAMA, 279, 23, 10.1001/jama.279.1.23 Dolecek, 1991, Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids and mortality in the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial (MRFIT), World Rev Nutr Diet, 66, 205, 10.1159/000419291 He, 2004, Accumulated evidence on fish consumption and coronary heart disease mortality: A meta-analysis of cohort studies, Circulation, 109, 2705, 10.1161/01.CIR.0000132503.19410.6B He, 2004, Fish consumption and incidence of stroke: A meta-analysis of cohort studies, Stroke, 35, 1538, 10.1161/01.STR.0000130856.31468.47 Wang, 2006, n-3 fatty acids from fish or fish-oil supplements, but not α-linolenic acid, benefit cardiovascular disease outcomes in primary- and secondary-prevention studies: A systematic review, Am J Clin Nutr, 84, 5, 10.1093/ajcn/84.1.5 de Deckere, 1999, Possible beneficial effect of fish and fish n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in breast and colorectal cancer, Eur J Cancer Prev, 8, 213, 10.1097/00008469-199906000-00009 Nkondjock, 2003, Specific fatty acids and human colorectal cancer: An overview, Cancer Detect Prev, 27, 55, 10.1016/S0361-090X(02)00179-4 Calviello, 2004, n-3 PUFAs reduce VEGF expression in human colon cancer cells modulating the COX-2/PGE2 induced ERK-1 and -2 and HIF-1alpha induction pathway, Carcinogenesis, 25, 2303, 10.1093/carcin/bgh265 MacLean, 2006, Effects of omega-3 fatty acids on cancer risk: A systematic review, JAMA, 295, 403, 10.1001/jama.295.4.403 SanGiovanni, 2005, The role of omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in health and disease of the retina, Prog Retin Eye Res, 24, 87, 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2004.06.002 Peet, 2005, Omega-3 fatty acids in the treatment of psychiatric disorders, Drugs, 65, 1051, 10.2165/00003495-200565080-00002 Hibbeln, 2006, Healthy intakes of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids: Estimations considering worldwide diversity, Am J Clin Nutr, 83, 1483S, 10.1093/ajcn/83.6.1483S Schaefer, 2006, Plasma phosphatidylcholine docosahexaenoic acid content and risk of dementia and Alzheimer disease: The Framingham Heart Study, Arch Neurol, 63, 1545, 10.1001/archneur.63.11.1545 van Gelder, 2007, Fish consumption, n-3 fatty acids, and subsequent 5-y cognitive decline in elderly men: The Zutphen Elderly Study, Am J Clin Nutr, 85, 1142, 10.1093/ajcn/85.4.1142 Beydoun, 2007, Plasma n-3 fatty acids and the risk of cognitive decline in older adults: The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study, Am J Clin Nutr, 85, 1103, 10.1093/ajcn/85.4.1103 Innis, 2006, Increased levels of mercury associated with high fish intakes among children from Vancouver, Canada, J Pediatr, 148, 759, 10.1016/j.jpeds.2006.02.001 Innis, 2004, Polyunsaturated fatty acids in human milk: An essential role in infant development, Adv Exp Med Biol, 554, 27, 10.1007/978-1-4757-4242-8_5 Innis, 1991, Essential fatty acids in growth and development, Prog Lipid Res, 30, 39, 10.1016/0163-7827(91)90006-Q Farquharson, 1995, Effect of diet on the fatty acid composition of the major phospholipids of infant cerebral cortex, Arch Dis Child, 72, 198, 10.1136/adc.72.3.198 Makrides, 1994, Fatty acid composition of brain, retina, and erythrocytes in breast- and formula-fed infants, Am J Clin Nutr, 60, 189, 10.1093/ajcn/60.2.189 Elias, 2001, Newborn infant plasma trans, conjugated linoleic, n-6 and n-3 fatty acids are related to maternal plasma fatty acids, length of gestation and birth weight and length, Am J Clin Nutr, 73, 807, 10.1093/ajcn/73.4.807 Koletzko, 1991, Arachidonic acid and early human growth, is there a relation?, Ann Nutr Metab, 35, 128, 10.1159/000177636 Innis, 2006, Trans fatty acid intakes during pregnancy and early childhood, Athersocler Suppl, 7, 17, 10.1016/j.atherosclerosissup.2006.04.005 Chen, 1995, Trans fatty acid isomers in Canadian human milk, Lipids, 30, 15, 10.1007/BF02537037 Innis, 1999, Trans fatty acids in human milk are inversely associated with concentrations of essential all-cis n-6 and n-3 fatty acids and determine trans, but not n-6 and n-3, fatty acids in plasma lipids of breast-fed infants, Am J Clin Nutr, 70, 383, 10.1093/ajcn/70.3.383 Mosley, 2005, Trans fatty acids in milk produced by women in the United States, Am J Clin Nutr, 82, 1292, 10.1093/ajcn/82.6.1292 Friesen, 2006, Trans fatty acids in human milk in Canada declined with the introduction of trans fat food labeling, J Nutr, 136, 2558, 10.1093/jn/136.10.2558 Carnielli, 1996, The very low birth weight premature infant is capable of synthesizing arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acids from linoleic and linolenic acids, Pediatr Res, 40, 169, 10.1203/00006450-199607000-00029 Uauy, 2000, Long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid formation in neonates, effect of gestational age and intrauterine growth, Pediatr Res, 47, 127, 10.1203/00006450-200001000-00022 Williams, 2006, Long-chain n-3 PUFA: Plant v marine sources, Proc Nutr Soc, 65, 42, 10.1079/PNS2005473 Ponder, 1992, Docosahexaenoic acid status of term infants fed breast milk or infant formula containing soy oil or corn oil, Pediatr Res, 32, 683, 10.1203/00006450-199212000-00012 Innis, 2005, Essential fatty acid transfer and fetal development, Placenta, 26, S70, 10.1016/j.placenta.2005.01.005 Helland, 2001, Similar effects on infants of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids supplementation to pregnant and lactating women, Pediatrics, 108, E82, 10.1542/peds.108.5.e82 Innis, 2001, Are human-milk long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids related to visual and neural development in breast-fed infants?, J Pediatr, 139, 532, 10.1067/mpd.2001.118429 Innis, 2003, Perinatal biochemistry and physiology of long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, J Pediatr, 143, S1, 10.1067/S0022-3476(03)00396-2 Ceruku, 2002, Higher maternal plasma docosahexaenoic acid during pregnancy is associated with more mature neonatal sleep-state patterning, Am J Clin Nutr, 76, 608, 10.1093/ajcn/76.3.608 Jorgensen, 2001, Is there a relation between docosahexaenoic acid concentration in mother’s milk and visual acuity development in term infants, J Pediatr Gastroenterl Nutr, 32, 293, 10.1097/00005176-200103000-00011 Hibbeln, 2007, Maternal seafood consumption in pregnancy and neurodevelopmental outcomes in childhood (ALSPAC study): An observational cohort study, Lancet, 369, 578, 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60277-3 Innis, 2007, Dietary (n-3) fatty acids and brain development, J Nutr, 137, 855, 10.1093/jn/137.4.855 Ghys, 2002, Red blood cell and plasma phospholipid arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acid at birth and cognitive development at 4 years of age, Early Human Dev, 69, 83, 10.1016/S0378-3782(02)00067-1 Helland, 2003, Maternal supplementation with very-long-chain n-3 fatty acids during pregnancy and lactation augments children’s IQ at 4 years of age, Pediatrics, 111, e39, 10.1542/peds.111.1.e39 Cohen, 2005, A quantitative analysis of prenatal intake of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and cognitive development, Am J Prev Med, 29, 366, 10.1016/j.amepre.2005.06.008 Lauritzen, 2004, Maternal fish oil supplementation in lactation: Effect on visual acuity and n-3 fatty acid content of infant erythrocytes, Lipids, 39, 195, 10.1007/s11745-004-1220-8 Lauritzen, 2005, Maternal fish oil supplementation in lactation: Effect on developmental outcome in breast-fed infants, Reprod Nutr Dev, 45, 535, 10.1051/rnd:2005044 Jensen, 2005, Effect of maternal docosahexaenoic acid intake on visual function and neurodevelopment in breast-fed infants, Am J Clin Nutr, 82, 125, 10.1093/ajcn/82.1.125 Dunstan, 2004, Effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in pregnancy on maternal and fetal erythrocyte fatty acid composition, Eur J Clin Nutr, 58, 429, 10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601825 Carlson, 1993, Arachidonic acid status correlates with first year growth in preterm infants, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 90, 1073, 10.1073/pnas.90.3.1073 Carlson, 1996, First year growth of preterm infants fed standard compared to marine-oil n-3 supplemented formula, Lipids, 27, 901, 10.1007/BF02535870 Carlson, 1996, Effect of long-chain n-3 fatty acid supplementation on visual acuity and growth of preterm infants with and without bronchopulmonary dysplasia, Am J Clin Nutr, 63, 687, 10.1093/ajcn/63.5.687 Ryan, 1999, Effect of DHA-containing formula on growth of preterm infants to 59 weeks postmenstrual age, Am J Human Biol, 11, 457, 10.1002/(SICI)1520-6300(1999)11:4<457::AID-AJHB5>3.0.CO;2-B Olsen, 1992, Randomized controlled trial of effect of fish oil supplementation on pregnancy duration, Lancet, 339, 1003, 10.1016/0140-6736(92)90533-9 Olsen, 2002, Low consumption of seafood in early pregnancy as a risk for preterm delivery; prospective cohort study, BMJ, 324, 447, 10.1136/bmj.324.7335.447 Bulstra-Ramakers, 1995, The effects of 3g eicosapentaenoic acid daily on recurrence of intrauterine growth retardation and pregnancy induced hypertension, Br J Obstet Gynaecol, 102, 123, 10.1111/j.1471-0528.1995.tb09064.x Malcolm, 2003, Maternal docosahexaenoic acid supplementation during pregnancy and visual evoked potential development in term infants: A double blind, prospective, randomised trial, Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed, 88, F383, 10.1136/fn.88.5.F383 Olsen, 2000, Randomized clinical trials of fish oil supplementation in high risk pregnancy, BJOG, 107, 382, 10.1111/j.1471-0528.2000.tb13235.x Onwude, 1995, A randomised double blind placebo controlled trial of fish oil in high risk pregnancy, Br J Obstet Gynaecol, 102, 95, 10.1111/j.1471-0528.1995.tb09059.x Birch, 2005, Visual maturation of term infants fed long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid-supplemented or control formula for 12 mo, Am J Clin Nutr, 81, 871, 10.1093/ajcn/81.4.871 Hoffman, 2003, Visual function in breast-fed term infants weaned to formula with or without long-chain polyunsaturates at 4 to 6 months: A randomized clinical trial, J Pediatr, 142, 669, 10.1067/mpd.2003.213 Heird, 2005, The role of essential fatty acids in development, Annu Rev Nutr, 25, 549, 10.1146/annurev.nutr.24.012003.132254 Hadders-Algra, 2005, A quantitative analysis of prenatal intake of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and cognitive development, Am J Prev Med, 29, 366, 10.1016/j.amepre.2005.06.008 SanGiovanni, 2000, Meta-analysis of dietary essential fatty acids and long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids as they relate to visual resolution acuity in healthy preterm infants, Pediatrics, 105, 1292, 10.1542/peds.105.6.1292 O’Connor, 2001, Growth and development in pre-term infants fed long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, a prospective randomized controlled trial, Pediatrics, 108, 359, 10.1542/peds.108.2.359 Wright, 2006, Formula supplemented with docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (ARA): A critical review of the research, J Spec Pediatr Nurs, 11, 100, 10.1111/j.1744-6155.2006.00048.x Harris, 2007, N-3 fatty acid fortification: Opportunities and obstacles, Br J Nutr, 97, 593, 10.1017/S0007114507666434