Practice Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Skin and Soft-Tissue Infections

Wong, 2004, The LRINEC (Laboratory risk indicator for necrotizing fasciitis) score: a tool for distinguishing necrotizing fasciitis from other soft tissue infections, Crit Care Med, 32, 1535, 10.1097/01.CCM.0000129486.35458.7D

Thorell, 2004, Antimicrobial resistance of Staphylococcus aureus from Kansas City children: what is the appropriate current therapy for pediatric staphylococcal infections [abstract 252]?, Proceedings and abstracts of the 42nd Annual Meeting of the Infectious Diseases Society of America (Boston), 81

Ruhe, 2004, Use of tetracyclines for infections caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus [abstract 516], Proceedings and abstracts of the 42nd Annual Meeting of the Infectious Diseases Society of America (Boston), 139

Van Beneden, 2004, Erythromycin resistance among invasive group A streptococcal infections, United States, 1999–2001 [abstract 345], Proceedings and abstracts of the 42nd Annual Meeting of the Infectious Diseases Society of America (Boston), 102

Yun, 2003, Prevalence and mechanisms of low- and high-level mupirocin resistance in staphylococci isolated from a Korean hospital, J Antimicrob Chemother, 51, 619, 10.1093/jac/dkg140

Committee on Infectious Diseases, American Academy of Pediatrics, 2003, Antimicrobial agents and related therapy, Red book 2003 report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases, 6th ed., 693

Miller, 2005, Necrotizing fasciitis caused by community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Los Angeles, N Engl J Med, 352, 1445, 10.1056/NEJMoa042683

Ferrieri, 1972, Natural history of impetigo. 1. Site sequence of acquisition and familial patterns of spread of cutaneous streptococci, J Clin Invest, 51, 2851, 10.1172/JCI107108

Adams, 2002, Dermatologic disorders of the athlete, Sports Med, 32, 309, 10.2165/00007256-200232050-00003

Fehrs, 1987, Group A beta-hemolytic streptococcal skin infections in a US meat-packing plant, JAMA, 258, 3131, 10.1001/jama.1987.03400210073028

Hirschmann, 2002, Impetigo: etiology and therapy, Curr Clin Top Infect Dis, 22, 42

Darmstadt, 1994, Impetigo: an overview, Pediatr Dermatol, 11, 293, 10.1111/j.1525-1470.1994.tb00092.x

Demidovich, 1990, Impetigo: current etiology and comparison of penicillin, erythromycin, and cephalexin therapies, Am J Dis Child, 144, 1313, 10.1001/archpedi.1990.02150360037015

Kaplan, 1970, The influence of the site of infection on the immune response to group A streptococci, J Clin Invest, 49, 1405, 10.1172/JCI106358

Bisno, 1973, Factors influencing serum antibody response in streptococcal pyoderma, J Lab Clin Med, 81, 410

Kaplan, 1976, Suppression of the anti-streptolysin O response by cholesterol and by lipid extracts of rabbit skin, J Exp Med, 144, 754, 10.1084/jem.144.3.754

Derrick, 1971, Impetigo contagiosa, Am Fam Physician, 4, 75

Ferrieri, 1974, A controlled study of penicillin prophylaxis against streptococcal impetigo, J Infect Dis, 129, 429, 10.1093/infdis/129.4.429

Dagan, 1989, Comparison of amoxicillin and clavulanic acid (augmentin) for the treatment of nonbullous impetigo, Am J Dis Child, 143, 916

Barton, 1987, Impetigo: a reassessment of etiology and therapy, Pediatr Dermatol, 4, 185, 10.1111/j.1525-1470.1987.tb00776.x

Barton, 1989, Impetigo contagiosa III: comparative efficacy of oral erythromycin and topical mupirocin, Pediatr Dermatol, 6, 134, 10.1111/j.1525-1470.1989.tb01012.x

Britton, 1990, Comparison of mupirocin and erythromycin in the treatment of impetigo, J Pediatr, 117, 827, 10.1016/S0022-3476(05)83352-9

Weinstein, 1971, Does antimicrobial therapy of streptococcal pharyngitis or pyoderma alter the risk of glomerulonephritis?, J Infect Dis, 124, 229, 10.1093/infdis/124.2.229

Meislin, 1977, Cutaneous abscesses: anaerobic and aerobic bacteriology and outpatient management, Ann Intern Med, 87, 145, 10.7326/0003-4819-87-2-145

Ghoneim, 1981, Aerobic and anaerobic bacteriology of subcutaneous abscesses, Br J Surg, 68, 498, 10.1002/bjs.1800680719

Brook, 1990, Aerobic and anaerobic bacteriology of wounds and cutaneous abscesses, Arch Surg, 125, 1445, 10.1001/archsurg.1990.01410230039007

Leach, 1979, Anaerobic axillary abscess, Br Med J, 2, 5, 10.1136/bmj.2.6181.5

Whitehead, 1982, The aetiology of scrotal sepsis, Br J Surg, 69, 729, 10.1002/bjs.1800691215

Edmiston, 1990, The nonpuerperal breast infection: aerobic and anaerobic microbial recovery from acute and chronic disease, J Infect Dis, 162, 695, 10.1093/infdis/162.3.695

Whitehead, 1982, The aetiology of perirectal sepsis, Br J Surg, 69, 166, 10.1002/bjs.1800690319

Diven, 1998, Bacteriology of inflamed and uninflamed epidermal inclusion cysts, Arch Dermatol, 134, 49, 10.1001/archderm.134.1.49

Llera, 1985, Treatment of cutaneous abscess: a double-blind clinical study, Ann Emerg Med, 14, 15, 10.1016/S0196-0644(85)80727-7

Macfie, 1977, The treatment of acute superficial abscesses: a prospective clinical trial, Br J Surg, 64, 264, 10.1002/bjs.1800640410

Decker, 1986, An outbreak of staphylococcal skin infections among river rafting guides, Am J Epidemiol, 124, 969, 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a114486

Sosin, 1989, An outbreak of furunculosis among high school athletes, Am J Sports Med, 17, 828, 10.1177/036354658901700618

Zimakoff, 1988, Recurrent staphylococcal furunculosis in families, Scand J Infect Dis, 20, 403, 10.3109/00365548809032475

Hedstrom, 1981, Recurrent staphylococcal furunculosis: bacteriological findings and epidemiology in 100 cases, Scand J Infect Dis, 13, 115, 10.3109/inf.1981.13.issue-2.07

Raz, 1996, A 1-year trial of nasal mupirocin in the prevention of recurrent staphylococcal nasal colonization and skin infection, Arch Intern Med, 156, 1109, 10.1001/archinte.1996.00040041109010

Lipsky, 1992, Immediate and long-term efficacy of systemic antibiotics for eradicating nasal colonization with Staphylococcus aureus, Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis, 11, 43, 10.1007/BF01971270

Klempner, 1988, Prevention of recurrent staphylococcal skin infections with low-dose oral clindamycin therapy, JAMA, 260, 2682, 10.1001/jama.1988.03410180090035

Bisno, 1996, Streptococcal infections in skin and soft tissues, N Engl J Med, 334, 240, 10.1056/NEJM199601253340407

Chartier, 1990, Erysipelas, Int J Dermatol, 29, 459, 10.1111/j.1365-4362.1990.tb04833.x

Chartier, 1996, Erysipelas: an update, Int J Dermatol, 35, 779, 10.1111/j.1365-4362.1996.tb02971.x

Swartz, 2004, Clinical practice: cellulitis, N Engl J Med, 350, 904, 10.1056/NEJMcp031807

Bernard, 1992, Roxithromycin versus penicillin in the treatment of erysipelas in adults: a comparative study, Br J Dermatol, 127, 155, 10.1111/j.1365-2133.1992.tb08048.x

Martin, 2002, Erythromycin-resistant group A streptococci in schoolchildren in Pittsburgh, N Engl J Med, 346, 1200, 10.1056/NEJMoa013169

York, 1999, Characterization of antimicrobial resistance in Streptococcus pyogenes isolates from the San Francisco Bay area of northern California, J Clin Microbiol, 37, 1727, 10.1128/JCM.37.6.1727-1731.1999

Dupuy, 1999, Risk factors for erysipelas of the leg (cellulitis): case-control study, BMJ, 318, 1591, 10.1136/bmj.318.7198.1591

Dan, 1987, Incidence of erysipelas following venectomy for coronary artery bypass surgery, Infection, 15, 107, 10.1007/BF01650207

Baddour, 1982, Recurrent cellulitis after saphenous venectomy for coronary bypass surgery, Ann Intern Med, 97, 493, 10.7326/0003-4819-97-4-493

Simon, 1992, Cellulitis after axillary lymph node dissection for carcinoma of the breast, Am J Med, 93, 543, 10.1016/0002-9343(92)90583-W

Baddour, 1999, Breast cellulitis complicating breast conservation therapy, J Intern Med, 245, 5, 10.1046/j.1365-2796.1999.00404.x

Bouma, 1988, Recurrent acute leg cellulitis in patients after radical vulvectomy, Gynecol Oncol, 29, 50, 10.1016/0090-8258(88)90146-1

Dankert, 1987, Recurrent acute leg cellulitis after hysterectomy with pelvic lymphadenectomy, Br J Obstet Gynaecol, 94, 788, 10.1111/j.1471-0528.1987.tb03728.x

Perl, 1999, Cost-effectiveness of blood cultures for adult patients with cellulitis, Clin Infect Dis, 29, 1483, 10.1086/313525

Kielhofner, 1988, Influence of underlying disease process on the utility of cellulitis needle aspirates, Arch Intern Med, 148, 2451, 10.1001/archinte.1988.00380110091019

Hook, 1986, Microbiologic evaluation of cutaneous cellulitis in adults, Arch Intern Med, 146, 295, 10.1001/archinte.1986.00360140113016

Sachs, 1990, The optimum use of needle aspiration in the bacteriologic diagnosis of cellulitis in adults, Arch Intern Med, 150, 1907, 10.1001/archinte.1990.00390200091017

Leppard, 1985, The value of bacteriology and serology in the diagnosis of cellulitis and erysipelas, Br J Dermatol, 112, 559, 10.1111/j.1365-2133.1985.tb15264.x

Sigurdsson, 1989, The etiology of bacterial cellulitis as determined by fine-needle aspiration, Scand J Infect Dis, 21, 537, 10.3109/00365548909037882

Newell, 1988, Value of needle aspiration in bacteriologic diagnosis of cellulitis in adults, J Clin Microbiol, 26, 401, 10.1128/JCM.26.3.401-404.1988

Lebre, 1996, Value of fine-needle aspiration in infectious cellulitis, Arch Dermatol, 132, 842, 10.1001/archderm.1996.03890310134030

Lutomski, 1988, Microbiology of adult cellulitis, J Fam Pract, 26, 45

Duvanel, 1989, Quantitative cultures of biopsy specimens from cutaneous cellulitis, Arch Intern Med, 149, 293, 10.1001/archinte.1989.00390020039008

Eriksson, 1996, Erysipelas: clinical and bacteriologic spectrum and serological aspects, Clin Infect Dis, 23, 1091, 10.1093/clinids/23.5.1091

Bernard, 1987, Early detection of streptococcal group antigens in skin samples by latex particle agglutination, Arch Dermatol, 123, 468, 10.1001/archderm.1987.01660280070025

Bernard, 1989, Streptococcal cause of erysipelas and cellulitis in adults: a microbiologic study using a direct immunofluorescence technique, Arch Dermatol, 125, 779, 10.1001/archderm.1989.01670180051004

Baddour, 1984, Recurrent cellulitis after coronary bypass surgery. Association with superficial fungal infection in saphenous venectomy limbs, JAMA, 251, 1049, 10.1001/jama.1984.03340320035023

Semel, 1996, Association of athlete's foot with cellulitis of the lower extremities: diagnostic value of bacterial cultures of ipsilateral interdigital space samples, Clin Infect Dis, 23, 1162, 10.1093/clinids/23.5.1162

Eriksson, 1999, Anal colonization of group G β-hemolytic streptococci in relapsing erysipelas of the lower extremity, Clin Infect Dis, 29, 1319, 10.1086/313467

Burman, 1995, Multifocal cellulitis and monoarticular arthritis as manifestations of Helicobacter cinaedi bacteremia, Clin Infect Dis, 20, 564, 10.1093/clinids/20.3.564

Kirsner, 1993, The clinical spectrum of lipodermatosclerosis, J Am Acad Dermatol, 28, 623, 10.1016/0190-9622(93)70085-8

Jorup-Ronstrom, 1984, The course, costs, and complications of oral versus intravenous penicillin therapy of erysipelas, Infection, 12, 390, 10.1007/BF01645222

Hepburn, 2004, Comparison of short-course (5 days) and standard (10 days) treatment for uncomplicated cellulitis, Arch Intern Med, 164, 1669, 10.1001/archinte.164.15.1669

Bergkvist, 1997, Antibiotic and prednisolone therapy of erysipelas: a randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled study, Scand J Infect Dis, 29, 377, 10.3109/00365549709011834

Bergkvist, 1998, Relapse of erysipelas following treatment with prednisolone or placebo in addition to antibiotics: a 1-year follow-up, Scand J Infect Dis, 30, 206, 10.1080/003655498750003708

Babb, 1966, Prophylaxis of recurrent lymphangitis complicating lymphedema, JAMA, 195, 871, 10.1001/jama.1966.03100100123046

Kremer, 1991, Long-term antimicrobial therapy in the prevention of recurrent soft-tissue infections, J Infect, 22, 37, 10.1016/0163-4453(91)90898-3

Sjoblom, 1993, Antibiotic prophylaxis in recurrent erysipelas, Infection, 21, 390, 10.1007/BF01728920

Wang, 1997, Role of benzathine penicillin G in prophylaxis for recurrent streptococcal cellulitis of the lower legs, Clin Infect Dis, 25, 685, 10.1086/513752

Kasseroller, 1998, Sodium selenite as prophylaxis against erysipelas in secondary lymphedema, Anticancer Res, 18, 2227

Groom, 2001, Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a rural American Indian community, JAMA, 286, 1201, 10.1001/jama.286.10.1201

Herold, 1998, Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in children with no identified predisposing risk, JAMA, 279, 593, 10.1001/jama.279.8.593

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2003, Outbreaks of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus skin infections—Los Angeles County, California, 2002–2003, MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 52, 88

Ma, 2002, Novel type of staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec identified in community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 46, 1147, 10.1128/AAC.46.4.1147-1152.2002

Okuma, 2002, Dissemination of new methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus clones in the community, J Clin Microbiol, 40, 4289, 10.1128/JCM.40.11.4289-4294.2002

Dufour, 2002, Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in France: emergence of a single clone that produces Panton-Valentine leukocidin, Clin Infect Dis, 35, 819, 10.1086/342576

2003, Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in correctional facilities—Georgia, California, and Texas, 2001–2003, MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 52, 992

2003, Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections among competitive sports participants—Colorado, Indiana, Pennsylvania, and Los Angeles County, 2000–2003, MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 52, 793

Stevens, 2000, Randomized comparison of linezolid (PNU-100766) versus oxacillin-dicloxacillin for treatment of complicated skin and soft tissue infections, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 44, 3408, 10.1128/AAC.44.12.3408-3413.2000

Stevens, 2002, Linezolid versus vancomycin for the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections. Linezolid MRSA Study Group, Clin Infect Dis, 34, 1481, 10.1086/340353

Markowitz, 1992, Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole compared with vancomycin for the treatment of Staphylococcus aureus infection, Ann Intern Med, 117, 390, 10.7326/0003-4819-117-5-390

Ahrenholz, 1988, Necrotizing soft-tissue infections, Surg Clin North Am, 68, 199, 10.1016/S0039-6109(16)44440-3

Lewis, 1992, Necrotizing soft-tissue infections, Infect Dis Clin North Am, 6, 693, 10.1016/S0891-5520(20)30470-0

Rea, 1970, Necrotizing fasciitis, Ann Surg, 172, 957, 10.1097/00000658-197012000-00005

Giuliano, 1977, Bacteriology of necrotizing fasciitis, Am J Surg, 134, 52, 10.1016/0002-9610(77)90283-5

Stevens, 1989, Reappearance of scarlet fever toxin A among streptococci in the Rocky Mountain West: severe group A streptococcal infections associated with a toxic shock-like syndrome, N Engl J Med, 321, 1, 10.1056/NEJM198907063210101

Chelsom, 1994, Necrotising fasciitis due to group A streptococci in western Norway: incidence and clinical features, Lancet, 344, 1111, 10.1016/S0140-6736(94)90629-7

Zimbelman, 1999, Improved outcome of clindamycin compared with beta-lactam antibiotic treatment for invasive Streptococcus pyogenes infection, Pediatr Infect Dis J, 18, 1096, 10.1097/00006454-199912000-00014

Mulla, 2003, Invasive group A streptococcal infections in Florida, South Med J, 96, 968, 10.1097/01.SMJ.0000051060.95210.9A

Stevens, 2003, Dilemmas in the treatment of invasive Streptococcus pyogenes infections, Clin Infect Dis, 37, 341, 10.1086/376652

Kaul, 1999, Intravenous immunoglobulin therapy for streptococcal toxic shock syndrome: a comparative observational study, Clin Infect Dis, 28, 800, 10.1086/515199

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Sissolak, 1994, Tropical pyomyositis, J Infect, 29, 121, 10.1016/S0163-4453(94)90530-4

Laucks, 1994, Fournier's gangrene, Surg Clin North Am, 74, 1339, 10.1016/S0039-6109(16)46485-6

Eke, 2000, Fournier's gangrene: a review of 1726 cases, Br J Surg, 87, 718, 10.1046/j.1365-2168.2000.01497.x

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Stevens, 1987, Comparison of clindamycin, rifampin, tetracycline, metronidazole, and penicillin for efficacy in prevention of experimental gas gangrene due to Clostridium perfringens, J Infect Dis, 155, 220, 10.1093/infdis/155.2.220

Stevens, 1993, Evaluation of hyperbaric oxygen therapy for treatment of experimental Clostridium perfringens infection, Clin Infect Dis, 17, 231, 10.1093/clinids/17.2.231

Talan, 1999, Bacteriologic analysis of infected dog and cat bites. Emergency Medicine Animal Bite Infection Study Group, N Engl J Med, 340, 85, 10.1056/NEJM199901143400202

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Goldstein, 1998, New horizons in the bacteriology, antimicrobial susceptibility and therapy of animal bite wounds, J Med Microbiol, 47, 95, 10.1099/00222615-47-2-95

Goldstein, 1987, Outpatient therapy of bite wounds: demographic data, bacteriology, and a prospective, randomized trial of amoxicillin/clavulanic acid versus penicillin +/- dicloxacillin, Int J Dermatol, 26, 123, 10.1111/j.1365-4362.1987.tb00544.x

Talan, 2003, Clinical presentation and bacteriologic analysis of infected human bites in patients presenting to emergency departments, Clin Infect Dis, 37, 1481, 10.1086/379331

1987, Transmission of HIV by human bite, Lancet, 2, 522

Vidmar, 1996, Transmission of HIV-1 by human bite, Lancet, 347, 1762, 10.1016/S0140-6736(96)90838-7

Dusheiko, 1990, Hepatitis C virus transmitted by human bite, Lancet, 336, 503, 10.1016/0140-6736(90)92049-N

Davis, 1989, Horizontal transmission of hepatitis B virus, Lancet, 1, 889, 10.1016/S0140-6736(89)92876-6

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Dixon, 1999, Anthrax, N Engl J Med, 341, 815, 10.1056/NEJM199909093411107

2001, Update: investigation of bioterrorism-related anthrax and interim guidelines for exposure management and antimicrobial therapy, October 2001, MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 50, 909

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