De Groot LJ (2006) Non-thyroidal illness syndrome is a manifestation of hypothalamic-pituitary dysfunction, and in view of current evidence, should be treated with appropriate replacement therapies. Cri Care Clin 22:57–86
Peeters RP, Debaveye Y, Fliers E, Visser TJ (2006) Changes within the thyroid axis during critical illness. Crit Care Clin 22:41–55
Wiersinga WM (2005) Nonthyroidal illness. In: Braverman LE, Utiger RD (eds) The thyroid: A fundamental and clinical text, 9th edn. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, pp 246–263
Wartofsky L, Burman KD (1982) Alterations in thyroid function in patients with systemic illness: the “euthyroid sick syndrome”. Endocr Rev 3:164–217
Adler SM, Wartofsky L (2007) The nonthyroidal illness syndrome. Endocrinol Metab Clin N Am 36:657–672
Portnay GI, O’Brian JT, Bush J et al (1974) The effect of starvation on the concentration and binding of thyroxine and triiodothyronine in serum and the response to TRH. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 39:191–194
Carlson HE, Drenick EJ, Chopra IJ, Hershmen JM (1977) Alterations in basal and TRH-stimulated serum levels of thyrotropin, prolactin, and thyroid hormones in starved obese men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 45:707–713
Hennemann G, Docter R, Fiesema ECHJ et al (2001) Plasma membrane transport of thyroid hormones and its role in thyroid hormone metabolism and bioavailability. Endocr Rev 22:451–476
Spector DA, Davis PJ, Helderman JH, Bell B, Utiger RD (1976) Thyroid function and metabolic state in chronic renal failure. Ann Intern Med 85:724–730
Lim VS, Fang VS, Katz AI, Refetoff S (1977) Thyroid dysfunction in chronic renal failure. A study of the pituitary-thyroid axis and peripheral turnover kinetics of thyroxine and triiodothyronine. J Clin Invest 60:522–534
Kolendorf K, Moller BB, Rogowski P (1978) The influence of chronic renal failure on serum and urinary thyroid hormone levels. Acta Endocrinol 89:80–88
Hershman JM, Krugman LG, Kopple JD et al (1978) Thyroid function in patients undergoing maintenance hemodialysis: unexplained low serum thyroxine concentration. Metabolism 27:755–759
Gomez-pan A, Alvarez-Ude F, Yeo PPB et al (1979) Function of the hypothalamo-hypophysial-thyroid axis in chronic renal failure. Clin Endocrinol 11:567–574
Gomez F, La Cueva RD, Wauters J-P, Lemarchand-Béraud T (1980) Endocrine abnormalities in patients undergoing long-term hemodialysis: the role of prolactin. Am J Med 68:522–530
Forest JC, Dube J, Talbot J (1982) Thyroid hormones in patients with chronic renal failure undergoing maintenance hemodialysis. Am J Clin Pathol 77:580–586
Kaptein EM, Feinstein EI, Nicoloff JT, Massry SG (1983) Serum reverse triiodothyronine and thyroxine kinetics in patients with chronic renal failure. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 57:181–189
Hardy MJ, Ragbeer SS, Nascimento L (1988) Pituitary-thyroid function in chronic renal failure assessed by a highly sensitive thyrotropin assay. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 66:233–236
Sakurai S, Hara Y, Miura S et al (1988) Thyroid functions before and after maintenance hemodialysis in patients with chronic renal failure. Endocrinol Jpn 35:865–876
Kaptein EM, Quion-Verde H, Chooljian CJ et al (1988) The thyroid in end-stage renal disease. Medicine 67:187–197
Okabayashi T, Takeda K, Kawada M et al (1996) Free thyroxine concentrations in serum measured by equilibrium dialysis in chronic renal failure. Clin Chem 42:1616–1620
Lin CC, Chen TW, Ng YY, Chou YH, Yang WC (1998) Thyroid dysfunction and nodular goiter in hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis patients. Perit Dial Int 18:516–521
Lo JC, Chertow GM, Go AS, Hsu C-Y (2005) Increased prevalence of subclinical and clinical hypothyroidism in persons with chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int 67:1047–1052
Kutlay S, Atli T, Koseogullari O et al (2005) Thyroid disorders in hemodialysis patients in an iodine-deficient community. Artif Organs 29:329–332
Chonchol M, Lippi G, Salvagno G et al (2008) Prevalence of subclinical hypothyroidism in patients with chronic kidney disease. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 3:1296–1300
Kang EW, Nam JY, Yoo TH et al (2008) Clinical implications of subclinical hypothyroidism in continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis patients. Am J Nephrol 28:908–913
Targher G, Chonchol M, Zoppini G et al (2009) Prevalence of thyroid autoimmunity and subclinical hypothyroidism in persons with chronic kidney disease not requiring chronic dialysis. Clin Chem Lab Med 47:1367–1371
Shantha GP, Kumar AA, Bhise V et al (2011) Prevalence of subclinical hypothyroidism in patients with end-stage renal disease and the role of serum albumin: a cross-sectional study from South India. Cardiorenal Med 1:255–260
Asvold BO, Bjøro T, Vatten LJ (2011) Association of thyroid function with estimated glomerular filtration rate in a population-based study: the HUNT study. Eur J Endocrinol 164:101–105
Kaptein EM (1996) Thyroid hormone metabolism and thyroid diseases in chronic renal failure. Endocr Rev 17:45–63
Sato K, Okamura K, Yoshinari M et al (1992) Reversible primary hypothyroidism and elevated serum iodine level in patient with renal dysfunction. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 126:253–259
Sanai T, Inoue T, Okamura K et al (2008) Reversible primary hypothyroidism in Japanese patients undergoing maintenance hemodialysis. Clin Nephrol 69:107–113
Foley RJ, Hamner RW (1985) Hyperthyroidism in end-stage renal disease. Am J Nephrol 5:292–295
McKillop JH, Leung ACT, Wilson R (1985) Successful management of Graves’ disease in a patients undergoing regular dialysis therapy. Arch Intern Med 145:337
Cooper DS, Steigerwalt S, Migdal S (1987) Pharmacology of propylthiouracil in thyrotoxicosis and chronic renal failure. Arch Intern Med 147:785–786
Alarcon RD, Groover AM, Jenkins-Ross CS (1992) Organic anxiety disorder secondary to hyperthyroidism in a hemodialysis patient: a rare occurrence. Psychosomatics 33:457–460
Hoffmann RG (1974) New clinical laboratory standardization methods. New York Exposition Press, New York
Kikkawa M, Tanaka I, Haruta N et al (1994) A study on thyroid function in patients on chronic dialysis. J Jpn Soc Dial Ther 27:301–305 (Japanese, English abstract)
Sanai T, Okamura K, Sato K et al (2012) Masked hyperthyroidism in a haemodialysis patient successfully treated by potassium iodide. Clin Kidney J (NDT plus) 5:70–72
Okamura K, Ueda K, Sone H et al (1989) A sensitive thyroid stimulating hormone assay for screening of thyroid functional disorders in elderly Japanese. J Am Geriatr Soc 37:317–322
Warner MH, Beckett GJ (2010) Mechanism behind the non-thyroidal illness syndrome: an update. J Endocrinol 205:1–13
Wheatley T, Clark PMS, Clark JDA et al (1989) Abnormalities of thyrotrophin (TSH) evening rise and pulsatile release in hemodialysis patients: evidence for hypothalamic-pituitary changes in chronic renal failure. Clin Endocrinol (Oxl) 31:39–50
Fliers E, Guldenaar SEF, Wiersinga WM, Swaab DF (1997) Decreased hypothalamic thyrotropin-releasing hormone gene expression in patients with nonthyroidal illness. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82:4032–4036
Maturla SJ, Rosenbaum RL, Pan C, Surks MI (1980) Variable thyrotropin response to thyrotropin-releasing hormone after small decreases in plasma free thyroid hormone concentrations in patients with nonthyroidal diseases. J Clin Invest 66:451–456
Lim VS, Henriquez C, Seo H, Refetoff S, Martino E (1980) Thyroid function in a uremic rat model. Evidence suggesting tissue hypothyroidism. J Clin Invest 66:946–954
Lim VS, Passo C, Murata Y et al (1984) Reduced triiodothyronine content in liver but not pituitary of the uremic rat model: demonstration of changes compatible with thyroid hormone deficiency in liver only. Endocrinology 114:280–286
Kaptein EM, Beale E, Chan LS (2009) Thyroid hormone therapy for obesity and nonthyroidal illnesses: a systematic review. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 94:3663–3675
El-Hara NA, Shaikh SE, Shaheen FAM (1996) Thyroid function in children with chronic renal failure. Saudi J Kidney Dis Transpl 7:297–300
Ijaiya K (1979) TSH and PRL response to thyrotropin-releasing hormone in children with chronic renal failure undergoing hemodialysis. Arch Dis Child 54:937–941
Okamura K, Nakashima T, Ueda K et al (1987) Thyroid disorders in the general population of Hisayama Japan, with special reference to prevalence and sex differences. Int J Epidemiol 16:545–549
Boucai L, Hollowell JG, Surks MI (2011) An approach for development of age-, gender-, and ethnicity-specific thyrotropin reference limits. Thyroid 21:5–11
Spencer CA, Hollowell JG, Kazarosyan M, Braverman LE (2007) National health and nutrition examination survey III thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)-thyroperoxidase antibody relationships demonstrate that TSH upper reference limits may be skewed by occult thyroid dysfunction. J Clin Endocinol Metab 92:4236–4240
Wartofsky L, Dickey RA (2005) The evidence for a narrower thyrotropin reference range is compelling. J Clin Endocinol Metab 90:5483–5488
Nagataki S (2008) The average of dietary iodine intake due to the ingestion of seaweeds is 1.2 mg/day in Japan. Thyroid 18:667–668