Ethics Through an Entrepreneurial Lens: Theory and Observation

Aldrich, H. E. and C. M. Fiol: 1994, ‘Fools Rush In? The Institutional Context of Industry Creation’, Academy of Management Review 19(4), 645–670. Aldrich, H. E. and K. Zimmer: 1986, ‘Entrepreneurship through Social Networks’, in D. L. Sexton and R. W. Smilor (eds.), The Art and Science of Entrepreneurship (Balling Publishing: Cambridge, MA). Arrow, K.: 1971, Essays in the Theory of Risk Bearing (Markham, Chicago). Birney, R. C.: 1968, ‘Research on the Achievement Motive’, in E. Borgatta and W. Lambert (eds.), Handbook of Personality and Research (Rand McNally, Chicago). Blasi, A.: 1980, ‘Bridging Moral Cognition and Moral Action: A Critical Review of the Literature’, Psychological Reports 88, 1–45. Brass, D. J., K. D. Butterfield and B. C. Skaggs: 1998, ‘Relationships and Unethical Behavior: A Social Network Perspective’, Academy of Management Review 23, 14–31. Boyd, D. P.: 1981–1982, ‘Improving Ethical Awareness Through the Business and Society Curriculum’, Business and Society 20(1), 27–31. Boyd, N. E. and G. S. Vozikis: 1994, ‘The Influence of Self-Efficacy on the Development of Entrepreneurial Intentions and Actions’, Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice 18(4), 63–77. Brockhaus, R.H. Sr.: 1982, ‘The Psychology of the Entrepreneur’, in C. Kent, D. Sexton and D. L. Vesper (eds.), Encyclopedia of Entrepreneurship (Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ). Brown, D. J. and J. B. King: 1982, ‘Small Business Ethics: Influences and Perceptions’, Journal of Small Business Management 20(1), 11–18. Callan, V. J.: 1992, ‘Predicting Ethical Values and Training Needs in Ethics’, Journal of Business Ethics 11, 761–769. Candee, D.: 1985, ‘Classical Ethics and Live Patient Simulations in the Moral Education of Health Care Professionals’, in M. W. Berkowitz and F. Oser (eds.), Moral Education: Theory and Application (Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ), pp. 297–320. Carland, J. W., F. Hoy, W. R. Boulton and J. C. Carland: 1984, ‘Differentiating Entrepreneurs from Small Business Owners: A Conceptualization’, Journal of Business Ethics 9, 354–359. Chia, A. and L. S. Mee, 2000, ‘The Effect of Issue Characteristics on the Recognition of Moral Issues’, Journal of Business Ethics 27, 255–269. Chrisman, J. J. and F. Archer: 1984, ‘Small Business Social Responsibility: Some Perceptions and Insights’, American Journal of Small Business 9(2), 46–58. Chrisman, J. J. and F. L. Fry: 1982, ‘Public Versus Business Expectations: Two Views on Social Responsibility for Small Business’, Journal of Small Business Management ( January), 19–26. Dees, J. G. and J. A. Starr: 1992, ‘Entrepreneurship Through an Ethical Lens’, in Donald L. Sexton and John D. Kasarda (eds.), The State of the Art of Entrepreneurship (PWS-Kent, Boston, MA). Delaney, J. T. and D. Sockell: 1992, ‘Do Company Ethics Training Programs Make a Difference? An Empirical Analysis’, Journal of Business Ethics 11, 719–727. Dubinsky, A. J. and B. Loken: 1989, ‘Analyzing Ethical Decision Making in Marketing’, Journal of Business Research 19(2), 83–107. Dukerich, J. M., M. J. Waller, E. George and G. P. Huber: 1993, ‘Moral Intensity in Group Problem Solving’, Paper Presented at the Academy of Management Annual Meeting, Atlanta, GA. Dukerich, J. M., M. J. Waller, E. George and G. P. Huber: 2000, ‘Moral Intensity and Managerial Problem Solving’, Journal of Business Ethics 24, 29–38. DuPont, A. M. and J. S. Craig: 1996, ‘Does Management Experience Change the Ethical Perceptions of Retail Professionals: A Comparison of the Ethical Perceptions of Current Students With Those of Recent Graduates’, Journal of Business Ethics 15, 815–826. Eisenhardt, K. M.: 1989, ‘Agency Theory: An Assessment and Review’, Academy of Management Journal 14(1), 57–74. Elm, D. R. and D. Nichols: 1992, ‘An Investigation of the Moral Reasoning of Managers’, Journal of Business Ethics 12, 817–833. Enz, C. A., M. J. Dollinger and C. M. Daily: 1990, ‘The Value Orientations of Minority and Nonminority Small Business Owners’, Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice 15 (Fall), 23–35. Ferrell, O. C. and L. G. Gresham: 1985, ‘A Contingency Framework for Understanding Ethical Decision Making in Marketing’, Journal of Marketing 49, 87–96. Ferrell, O. C., L. G. Gresham and G. Fraedrich: 1989, ‘A Synthesis of Ethical Decision Models for Marketing’, Journal of Macromarketing 9(2), 55–64. Ferrell, O. C. and S. J. Skinner: 1988, ‘Ethical Behavior and Bureaucratic Structure in Marketing Research Organizations’, Journal of Marketing Research 25, 103–109. Festinger, L.: 1957, A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (Row, Peterson, Evanston, IL). Fishbein, M. and I. Ajzen: 1975, Belief, Attitude, Intention, and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Research (Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA). Friedman, M.: 1962, ‘The Social Responsibility of Business is to Increase its Profits’, New York Times (September), 33. Fritzsche, D. J. and H. Becker: 1983, ‘Ethical Behavior of Marketing Managers’, Journal of Business Ethics 1, 291–299. Gibbs, J. C. and K. F. Widaman: 1982, Social Intelligence: Measuring the Development of Sociomoral Reflection (Prentice-Hall: Englewood Cliffs, NJ). Glover, S. H., M. A. Bumpus, J. E. Logan and J. R. Ciesla: 1997, ‘Re-examining the Influence of Individual Values on Ethical Decision Making’, Journal of Business Ethics 16, 1319–1329. Goldman, S. A. and J. Arbuthnot: 1979, ‘Teaching Medical Ethics: The Cognitive Developmental Approach’, Journal of Medical Ethics 5, 171–181. Green, M. K.: 1992, ‘Fairness in Hierarchical and Entrepreneurial Firms’, Journal of Business Ethics 11, 877–882. Gulati, R.: 1995, ‘Social Structure and Alliance Formation Patterns: A Longitudinal Analysis’, Administrative Science Quarterly 40, 619–652. Harris, J. R.: 1990, ‘Ethical Values of Individuals at Different Levels in the Organizational Hierarchy of a Single Firm’, Journal of Business Ethics 9, 741–750. Hebert, R. F. and A. N. Link: 1982, The Entrepreneur: Mainstream Views and Radical Critiques, 2nd Ed. (Praeger, New York, NY). Hegarty, W. H. and H. P. Sims Jr.: 1978, ‘Some Determinants of Unethical Decision Behavior: An Experiment’, Journal of Applied Psychology 63(4), 451–457. Hegarty, W. H. and H. P. Sims Jr.: 1979, ‘Organizational Philosophy, Policies and Objectives Related to Unethical Decision Behavior: A Laboratory Experiment’, Journal of Applied Psychology 64(3), 331–338. Hornsby, J. S., D. Kuratko, D. Naffziger, W. LaFollette and R. Hodgetts: 1994, ‘The Ethical Perceptions of Small Business Owners’, Journal of Small Business Management 32(4), 9–16. Humphreys, N., D. Robin, R. E. Reidenbach and D. Moak: 1993, ‘The Ethical Decision Making Process of Small Business Owner/Managers and Their Customers’, Journal of Small Business Management 31(3), 9–22. Hunt, S. D. and S. Vitell: 1986, ‘A General Theory of Marketing Ethics’, Journal of Macromarketing 6(1), 5–16. Jackall, R.: 1988, Moral Mazes: The World of Corporate Managers (Oxford University Press, New York). Jones, T. M.: 1991, ‘Ethical Decision Making in Organizations: An Issue-Contingent Model’, Academy of Management Review 16, 366–395. Kavathatzopoulos, I.: 1993, ‘Development of a Cognitive Skill in Solving Business Ethics Problems: The Effect of Instruction’, Journal of Business Ethics 12, 379–386. Kohlberg, L.: 1969, ‘Stage and Sequence: The Cognitive-Developmental Approach to Socialization’, in D. A. Goslin (ed.), Handbook of Socialization Theory and Research (Rand-McNally, Chicago). Laczniak, G. and E. J. Interrieden: 1987, ‘The Influence of Stated Organizational Concern Upon Ethical Decision Making’, Journal of Business Ethics 6, 297–307. Lasker, H.: 1978, ‘Ego Development and Motivation: A Cross-Cultural Cognitive Analysis of N Achievement’, Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Chicago. Latane, B. and J. M. Darley: 1970, The Unresponsive Bystander: Why Doesn't He Help? (Appleton Century Cliffs, New York). Lewis, P. V.: 1989, ‘Ethical Principles for Decision Makers: A Longitudinal Survey’, Journal of Business Ethics 8, 271–278. Lincoln, D. J., M. M. Pressley and T. Little: 1982, ‘Ethical Beliefs and Personal Values of Top Level Executives’, Journal of Business Research 10, 475–487. Longenecker, J. G., J. McKinne and C. W. Moore: 1988, ‘Egoism and Independence: Entrepreneurial Ethics’, Organizational Dynamics 16, 64–72. Longenecker, J. G., J. McKinney and C. W. Moore: 1989a, ‘Do Smaller Firms Have Higher Ethics?’, Business and Society Review 71, 19–21. Longenecker, J. G., J. McKinney and C. W. Moore: 1989b, ‘Ethics in Small Business’, Journal of Small Business Management 27(1), 27–31. Longenecker, J. G. and J. E. Schoen: 1975, ‘The Essence of Entrepreneurship’, Journal of Small Business Management 13(3), 26–32. Marshall, B. and P. Dewe: 1997, ‘An Investigation of the Components of Moral Intensity’, Journal of Business Ethics 16, 521–530. Mayo, M. A.: 1991, ‘Ethical Problems Encountered by U.S. Small Businesses in International Marketing’, Journal of Small Business Management 29(2), 51–59. McCuddy, M. K. and B. L. Peery: 1996, ‘Selected Individual Differences and Collegian's Ethical Beliefs’, Journal of Business Ethics 15, 261–272. McClelland, D.: 1961, The Achieving Society (Van Nostrand, Princeton, NJ). Miller, D.: 1983, ‘The Correlates of Entrepreneurship in Three Types of Firms’, Management Science 29(7), 770–791. Murphy, P. R., J. E. Smith and J. M. Darley: 1992, ‘Executive Attitudes, Organizational Size and Ethical Issues: Perspectives on a Service Industry’, Journal of Business Ethics 11, 11–19. Payne, S. L. and D. Duhon: 1990, ‘Hard Time Ethics and the Small Business Entrepreneur’, Business Insights 9(2), 29–32. Penn, W. Y. and B. D. Collier: 1985, ‘Current Research in Moral Development as a Decision Support System’, Journal of Business Ethics 4, 131–136. Posner, B. Z. and W. H. Schmidt: 1993, ‘Ethics in American Companies: A Managerial Perspective’, Journal of Business Ethics 6, 383–391. Quinn, J. J.: 1997, ‘Personal Ethics and Business Ethics: The Ethical Attitudes of Owner/Managers of Small Business’, Journal of Business Ethics 16(2), 119–127. Reidenbach, R. E. and D. P. Robin: 1988, ‘Some Initial Steps Toward Improving the Measurement of Ethical Evaluations of Marketing Activities’, Journal of Business Ethics 7, 871–879. Reidenbach, R. E. and D. P. Robin: 1990, ‘Toward the Development of a Multidimensional Scale for Improving Evaluations of Business Ethics’, Journal of Business Ethics 9, 639–653. Rest, J. R.: 1979, Development in Judging Moral Issues (University of Minnesota Press, Minneapols). Rest, J. R.: 1986, Moral Development: Advances in Research and Theory (Praeger, New York). Robinson, J. P., P. R. Shaver and L.W. Wrightsman: 1991, ‘Measures of Personality and Social Psychological Attitudes’, Measures of Social Psychological Attitudes, Vol. 1 (Academic Press, New York, NY). Rotter, J. B.: 1966, ‘Generalized Experiences for Internal Versus External Control of Reinforcement’, Psychological Monographs, 609. Shanthakumar, D. K.: 1992, ‘Attitudinal Characteristics of Male and Female Entrepreneurs in India and a Comparison with American Entrepreneurs’, Unpublished doctoral dissertation (Brigham Young University, UT). Shapero, D.: 1975, ‘The Displaced, Uncomfortable Entrepreneur’, Psychology Today (November), 83–86. Singer, M. S., S. Mitchell and S. Turner: 1998, ‘Consideration of Moral Intensity in Ethicality Judgements: Its Relationship with Whistle-blowing and Need-for-Cognition’, Journal of Business Ethics 17, 527–541. Singhapakdi, A. and S. J. Vitelli: 1994, ‘Marketing Ethics: Factors Influencing Perceptions of Ethical Problems and Alternatives’, Journal of Macromarketing (Spring), 4–18. Smith, P. L. and E. F. Oakley III: 1984, ‘A Study of the Ethical Values of Metropolitan and Nonmetropolitan Small Business Owners’, Journal of Small Business Management 32(4), 17–27. Snarey, J. R.: 1986, ‘Cross-cultural Universality of Socio-Moral Development: A Critical Review of Kohlbergian Research’, Psychological Bulletin 97, 202–232. Solymossy, E.: 1998, ‘Entrepreneurial Dimensions: The Relationship of Individual, Venture, and Environmental Factors to Success’, Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation (Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH). Solymossy, E. and R. D. Hisric: 1996, ‘Entrepreneurial Ethics: The Impact of Accountability and Independence’, in P. D. Reynolds, S. Birley, J. E. Butler, W. D. Bygrave, P. Davidsson, W. B. Gartner and P. P. McDougall (eds.), Frontiers of Entrepreneurial Research (Babson College, Babson Park, MA). Stratton, W. E., W. R. Flynn and G. A. Johnson: 1981, ‘Moral Development and Decision Making: A Study of Student Ethics’, Journal of Enterprise Management 3, 35–41. Teal, E. J. and A. B. Carroll: 1999, ‘Moral Reasoning Skills: Are Entrepreneurs Different?’, Journal of Business Ethics 19, 229–240. Teoh, H. Y. and S. L. Foo: 1997, ‘Moderating Effects of Tolerance for Ambiguity and Risk-Taking Propensity on the Role Conflict-Perceived Performance Relationship: Evidence From Singaporean Entrepreneurs’, Journal of Business Venturing 12, 67–81. Trevino, L. K.: 1986, ‘Ethical Decision Making in Organizations: A Person-Situation Interactionist Model’, Academy of Management Review 11, 601–617. Trevino, L. K.: 1992, ‘Moral Reasoning and Business Ethics: Implications for Research, Education and Management’, Journal of Business Ethics 11, 445–459. Trevino, L. K., K. D. Butterfield and D. L. McCabe: 1998, ‘The Ethical Context in Organizations: Influences on Employee Attitudes and Behaviors’, Business Ethics Quarterly 8, 447–476. Trevino, L. K. and S. A. Youngblood: 1990, ‘Bad Apples in Bad Barrels: A Causal Analysis of Ethical Decision-making Behavior’, Journal of Applied Psychology 75, 378–385. Vyakarnam, S., A. Bailey, A. Myers and D. Burnett: 1997, ‘Towards an Understanding of Ethical Behavior in Small Firms’, Journal of Business Ethics 16, 1625–1636. Weber, J.: 1990, ‘Managers' Moral Reasoning: Assessing Their Responses in Three Moral Dilemmas’, Human Relations 43(7), 687–702. Weber, J.: 1996, ‘Influences Upon Managerial Moral Decision Making: Nature of the Harm and Magnitude of the Consequences’, Human Relations 49, 1–22. Wilson, E.: 1980, ‘Social Responsibility of Business: What are the Small Business Perspectives?’, Journal of Small Business Management 18(3), 17–24. Zahra, S. A.: 1989, ‘Executive Values and the Ethics of Companie Politics: Some Preliminary Findings’, Journal of Business Ethics 8, 15–29. Zey-Ferrell, M. K., M. Weaver and O. C. Ferrell: 1979, ‘Predicting Unethical Behavior Among Marketing Practitioners’, Human Relations 32(7), 557–569. Zey-Ferrell, M. K. and O. C. Ferrell: 1982, ‘Roleset Configuration and Opportunity as Predictors of Unethical Behavior in Organizations’, Human Relations 35(7), 587–604.