The bipolar spectrum: a clinical reality in search of diagnostic criteria and an assessment methodology

Akiskal, 1981, Subaffective disorders: dysthymic, cyclothymic and bipolar II disorders in the `borderline' realm, Psychiatr. Clin. North Am., 4, 25, 10.1016/S0193-953X(18)30935-3 Akiskal, H.S., 1983. The bipolar spectrum: New concepts in classification and diagnosis. In: Grinspoon, L. (Ed.), Psychiatry Update: The American Psychiatric Association Annual Review, vol. 2. American Psychiatric Press, Washington, DC, pp. 271–292. Akiskal, 1992, Delineating irritable-choleric and hyperthymic temperaments as variants of cyclothymia, J. Person. Disord., 6, 326, 10.1521/pedi.1992.6.4.326 Akiskal, 1996, The prevalent clinical spectrum of bipolar disorders: beyond DSM-IV, J. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 16, 4s, 10.1097/00004714-199604001-00002 Akiskal, H.S., Akiskal, K., 1992. Cyclothymic, hyperthymic and depressive temperaments as subaffective variants of mood disorders. In: Tasman, A., Riba M.B. (Eds.), American Psychiatric Association Review. American Psychiatric Press, Washington, DC, pp. 43–62. Akiskal, 1987, Criteria for the `soft' bipolar spectrum: treatment implications, Psychopharmacol. Bull., 23, 68 Akiskal, 1979, Psychotic forms of depression and mania Psychiatr, Clin. North Am., 2, 419, 10.1016/S0193-953X(18)30987-0 Akiskal, 1985, Borderline: An adjective in search of a noun, J. Clin. Psychiatry, 46, 41 Akiskal, 1989, Psychopathology, temperament and past course in primary major depressions: I. Review of evidence for a bipolar spectrum, Psychopathology, 22, 268, 10.1159/000284607 Akiskal, 1995, Switching from `unipolar' to bipolar II, Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 52, 114, 10.1001/archpsyc.1995.03950140032004 Akiskal, 1997, Subthreshold depressions: Clinical and polysomnographic validation of dysthymic, residual and masked forms, J. Affect. Disord., 45, 53, 10.1016/S0165-0327(97)00059-1 American Psychiatric Association, 1994. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition. American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC. Angst, 1986, The course of affective disorders, Psychopathology, 2, 47, 10.1159/000285131 Angst, 1995, Epidemiologie du spectre bipolaire, Encephale Sp., VI, 37 Angst, J., 1997. Recurrent brief psychiatric syndromes: hypomania, depression, anxiety and neurasthenia. In: Judd, L.L., Saletu, B., Filip, V. (Eds.), Basic and Clinical Science of Mental and Addictive Disorders. Bibl. Pyschiatr. Karger, Basel, pp. 33–38. Bauer, 1994, Testing definitions of dysphoric mania and hypomania: Prevalence, clinical characteristics and interepisode stability, J. Affect. Disord., 32, 201, 10.1016/0165-0327(94)90019-1 Berner, P., Gabriel, E., Katschnig, H., Kieffer, W., Koehler, K., Lenz, G., Simhandel, C., 1983. Diagnostic Criteria for Schizophrenic and Affective Psychoses. American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC. Biederman, 1996, Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and juvenile mania: an overlooked comorbidity?, J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry, 35, 997, 10.1097/00004583-199608000-00010 Boulenger, 1993, Mixed anxiety and depression: Diagnostic issues, J. Clin. Psychiatry, 54, 3 Bourgeois, 1997, The EPIMAN and EPIDEP French studies of bipolarity: Preliminary results, J. Bipolar. Disord., 1, 13 Cassano, G.B., Savino, M., 1997. Chronic and residual major depressions. In: Akiskal, H.S., Cassano, G.B. (Eds.), Dysthymia and the Spectrum of Chronic Depressions. The Guilford Press, New York, pp. 54–65. Cassano, 1992, Proposed subtypes of bipolar II and related disorders: with hypomanic episodes (or cyclothymia) and with hyperthymic temperament, J. Affect. Disord., 26, 127, 10.1016/0165-0327(92)90044-7 Cassano, 1992, Major depressive episode: unipolar and bipolar II, Encephale, XVIII, 15 Cassano, 1997, The panic agoraphobic spectrum: a descriptive approach to the assessment and treatment of subtle symptoms, Am. J. Psychiatry, 154, 27 Chen, C.N., Lee, N., Lai, P., Lam, Y.M., Wong, J., Wong, Y.F., 1985. Two-stage screening in community survey: report of a pilot study. Proceedings of an International Symposium on Psychiatric Epidemiology, Taipei-City. Coryell, 1996, Bipolar II disorder: a progress report, J. Affect. Disord., 41, 159, 10.1016/S0165-0327(96)00086-9 Coryell, 1984, A family study of bipolar II disorder, Br. J. Psychiatry, 145, 49, 10.1192/bjp.145.1.49 Coryell, 1987, The significance of past mania or hypomania in the course and outcome of major depression, Am. J. Psychiatry, 144, 309, 10.1176/ajp.144.3.309 Coryell, 1989, Bipolar II illness: Course and outcome over a five-year period, Psychol. Med., 19, 129, 10.1017/S0033291700011090 Dell'Osso, 1991, The manic-depressive mixed state: familial temperamental and psychopathologic characteristics in 108 female inpatients, Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci., 240, 234, 10.1007/BF02189532 Dell'Osso, 1993, Psychotic and nonpsychotic bipolar mixed states: Comparisons with manic and schizoaffective disorders, Eur. Arch. Psychiatry. Clin. Neurosci., 243, 75, 10.1007/BF02191568 Dunner, 1976, The course of development of mania in patients with recurrent depression, Am. J. Psychiatry, 133, 905, 10.1176/ajp.133.8.905 Endicott, 1985, Bipolar II. Combine or keep separate?, J. Affect. Disord., 8, 17, 10.1016/0165-0327(85)90068-0 Gershon, E.S., 1983. The genetics of affective disorders. In: Grinspoon, L. (Ed.), Psychiatry Update. The American Psychiatric Association Annual Review. vol. 2. American Psychiatric Press, Washington, DC. Goldring, 1984, Attempted suicide in manic-depressive disorder, Am. J. Psychother., 38, 373, 10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.1984.38.3.373 Goodwin, F.K., Jamison, K.R., 1990. Manic-depressive Illness. New York, Oxford University Press. Heun, 1993, The distinction of bipolar II disorder from bipolar I and recurrent unipolar depression: Results of a controlled family study, Acta Psychiatr. Scand., 87, 279, 10.1111/j.1600-0447.1993.tb03372.x Judd, 1994, Subsyndromal symptomatic depression: a new mood disorder?, J. Clin. Psychiatry, 55, 18S Kessler, 1994, Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM III-R psychiatric disorders in the United States. Results from the National Comorbidity Survey, Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 51, 8, 10.1001/archpsyc.1994.03950010008002 Koukopoulos, 1980, Course of the manic-depressive cycle and changes caused by treatments, Pharmacopsychiatry, 13, 156, 10.1055/s-2007-1019628 Koukopoulos, A., Tundo, A., Floris, G.F., Reginald, D., Minai, G.P., Tondo, L., 1990. Changes in life habits that may influence the course of affective disorders. In: Stefanis, C.N., Rabavilas, A.D., Soldatos, C.R. (Eds.), Psychiatry: A Word Perspective. Elsevier, Amsterdam. Koukopoulos, 1992, A mixed depressive syndrome, Encéphale, 18, 19 Kovacs, 1995, Bipolar disorder and comorbid conduct disorder in childhood and adolescence, J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry, 34, 715, 10.1097/00004583-199506000-00011 Kraepelin, E., 1921. Manic-depressive Illness and Paranoia. ES Livingstone, Edinburgh. Leibenluft, 1996, Women with bipolar illness: clinical and research issues, Am. J. Psychiatry, 153, 163, 10.1176/ajp.153.2.163 Maser, J.D., Cloninger, R. (Eds.), 1990. Comorbidity of Mood and Anxiety Disorders. American Psychiatric Press, Washington, DC. McElroy, 1995, Differences and similarities in mixed and pure mania, Comp. Psychiatry, 36, 187, 10.1016/0010-440X(95)90080-F Milberger, 1995, Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and comorbid disorders: issues of overlapping symptoms, Am. J. Psychiatry, 152, 1793, 10.1176/ajp.152.12.1793 Musetti, 1989, Depression before and after 65; a reexamination, Br. J. Psychiatry, 155, 330, 10.1192/bjp.155.3.330 Olfson, 1996, Subthreshold psychiatric symptoms in a primary care group practice, Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 53, 880, 10.1001/archpsyc.1996.01830100026004 Perugi, 1997, Clinical subtypes of bipolar mixed states: validating a broader European definition in 143 cases, J. Affect. Disord., 43, 169, 10.1016/S0165-0327(97)01446-8 Pini, 1997, Prevalence of anxiety disorders comorbidity in bipolar depression, unipolar depression and dysthymia, J. Affect. Disord., 42, 145, 10.1016/S0165-0327(96)01405-X Savino, 1993, Affective comorbidity in panic disorder: is there a bipolar connection?, J. Affect. Disord., 28, 155, 10.1016/0165-0327(93)90101-O Tyrer, P.J., 1989. Classification of Neurosis. John Wiley, New York. Tyrer, 1990, The division of neurosis: a failed classification, J. Royal Soc. Med., 83, 614, 10.1177/014107689008301006 Wacker, 1992, Identification of cases of anxiety disorders and affective disorders in the community according to ICD-10 and DSM III-R by using the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI), Int. J. Methods Psychiatr. Res., 2, 91 Weissman, M.M., Bruce, M.L., Leaf, P.J., Florio, L.P., Holzer, C., 1990. Affective disorders. In: Robins, L., Regier, D. (Eds.), Psychiatric Disorders in America. The Epidemiologic Catchment Area Study. Free Press, New York, pp. 53–80. Weller, 1995, Bipolar disorder in children: misdiagnosis, underdiagnosis, and future directions, J. Am. Acad. Child. Adolesc. Psychiatry, 34, 709, 10.1097/00004583-199506000-00010 Widiger, 1991, Personality disorder dimensional models proposed for DSM-IV, J. Personal. Disord., 5, 386, 10.1521/pedi.1991.5.4.386 Widiger, 1991, Diagnosis and clinical assessment, Ann. Rev. Psychol., 42, 109, 10.1146/annurev.ps.42.020191.000545 Wittchen, 1992, Lifetime and six-month prevalence of mental disorders in the Munich follow-up study, Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci., 241, 247, 10.1007/BF02190261 World Health Organization, 1992. International Classification of Diseases, 10th revision. World Health Organization, Geneva.