Disentangling succession and entrepreneurship gender gaps: gender norms, culture, and family
Tóm tắt
This study adapts a multi-level view of culture, including society- and family-based gender norms and the family embeddedness perspective, to predict the career status of a sample of 2897 young Europeans (aged 18–35) from 11 countries, with at least one self-employed parent. We find that gender identity is associated with career status such that a woman is more likely than a man to be an employee vs. a successor to a family firm but no less likely to be a founder as compared with either being an employee or successor. However, certain family and society-level culture variables combined with gender identity reverse these trends. A woman with caring responsibilities is more likely to be a successor than either a founder or employee. Also, while two-way interaction effects for traditional gender norms and having a self-employed mother are weak or not significant, the study finds that in combination, a woman reporting both traditional gender norms and having a self-employed mother is more likely to be a successor than being either an employee or a founder, reversing gender identity main effects. Incorporating the family embeddedness perspective and the role of culture in occupational choice, we develop a better view of the gender gap in entrepreneurship, finding that the family may serve as a stronger influence than society when implied norms of these two levels of culture clash. By examining actual rather than intended career choice, we also contribute to the occupational choice literature on youth employment.
Tài liệu tham khảo
Ahl, H. (2006). Why research on women entrepreneurs needs new directions. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 30(5), 595–621. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2006.00138.x.
Aldrich, H., & Cliff, J. (2003). The pervasive effects of family on entrepreneurship: Toward a family embeddedness perspective. Journal of Business Venturing, 18(5), 573–596. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-9026(03)00011-9.
Azmat, F., & Fujimoto, Y. (2016). Family embeddedness and entrepreneurship experience: A study of Indian migrant women entrepreneurs in Australia. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 28(9–10), 630–656. https://doi.org/10.1080/08985626.2016.1208279.
Baughn, C. C., Chua, B., & Neupert, K. E. (2006). The normative context for women’s participation in entrepreneurship: A multicountry study. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 30(5), 687–708. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2006.00142.x.
Bloemen-Bekx, M., Voordeckers, W., Remery, C., & Schippers, J. (2019). Following in parental footsteps? The influence of gender and learning experiences on entrepreneurial intentions. International Small Business Journal. https://doi.org/10.1177/0266242619838936.
Braun, M., & Scott, J. (2009). Changing public views of gender roles in seven nations, 1988–2002. In M. Haller, R. Jowell, & T. W. Smith (Eds.), The international social survey programme, 1984–2009: Charting the globe (pp. 358–377). London: Routledge.
Bullough, A., Moore, F., & Kalafatoglu, T. (2017a). Research on women in international business and management: Then, now, and next. Cross Cultural & Strategic Management, 24(2), 211–230. https://doi.org/10.1108/CCSM-02-2017-0011.
Bullough, A., Renko, M., & Abdelzaher, D. (2017b). Women’s business ownership: Operating within the context of institutional and in-group collectivism. Journal of Management, 43(7), 2037–2064.
Campopiano, G., De Massis, A., Rinaldi, F. R., & Sciascia, S. (2017). Women’s involvement in family firms: Progress and challenges for future research. Journal of Family Business Strategy, 8(4), 200–212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfbs.2017.09.001.
Diamond, M. (2002). Sex and gender are different: Sexual identity and gender identity are different. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 7(3), 320–334.
Elam, A., & Terjesen, S. (2010). Gendered institutions and cross-national patterns of business creation for men and women. The European Journal of Development Research, 22(3), 331–348. https://doi.org/10.1057/ejdr.2010.19.
Greene, F. J., Han, L., & Marlow, S. (2013). Like mother, like daughter? Analyzing maternal influences upon women's entrepreneurial propensity. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 37(4), 687–711. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2011.00484.x.
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (Eds.). (2010). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Hoffmann, A., Junge, M., & Malchow-Møller, N. (2015). Running in the family: Parental role models in entrepreneurship. Small Business Economics, 44(1), 79–104. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-014-9586-0.
House, R., Javidan, M., Hanges, P., & Dorfman, P. (2002). Understanding cultures and implicit leadership theories across the globe: An introduction to project GLOBE. Journal of World Business, 37(1), 3–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1090-9516(01)00069-4.
Hytti, U., Alsos, G. A., Heinonen, J., & Ljunggren, E. (2016). Navigating the family business: A gendered analysis of identity construction of daughters. International Small Business Journal, 35(6), 665–686. https://doi.org/10.1177/0266242616675924.
Jennings, J. E., & Brush, C. G. (2013). Research on women entrepreneurs: Challenges to (and from) the broader entrepreneurship literature? Academy of Management Annals, 7(1), 663–715. https://doi.org/10.1080/19416520.2013.782190.
Karaca-Mandic, P., Norton, E. C., & Dowd, B. (2012). Interaction terms in nonlinear models. Health Services Research, 47(1pt1), 255–274. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6773.2011.01314.x.
Karataş-Özkan, M., Erdoğan, A., & Nicolopoulou, K. (2011). Women in Turkish family businesses: Drivers, contributions and challenges. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 11(2), 203–219. https://doi.org/10.1177/1470595811399189.
Kubíček, A., & Machek, O. (2019). Gender-related factors in family business succession: a systematic literature review. Review of Managerial Science, 13(5), 963-1002.
Leung, K., Bhagat, R. S., Buchan, N. R., Erez, M., & Gibson, C. B. (2005). Culture and international business: Recent advances and their implications for future research. Journal of International Business Studies, 36(4), 357–378. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400150.
Lindquist, M., Sol, J., & van Praag, M. (2015). Why do entrepreneurial parents have entrepreneurial children? Journal of Labor Economics, 33(2), 269–296. https://doi.org/10.1086/678493.
Lukeš, M., & Zouhar, J. (2016). The causes of early-stage entrepreneurial discontinuance. Prague Economic Papers, 25(1), 19–36. https://doi.org/10.18267/j.pep.534.
Lukeš, M., Feldmann, M., & Vegetti, F. (2019). Work values and the value of work: Different implications for young adults’ self-employment in Europe. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 682(1), 156–171. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716219828976.
Markussen, S., & Røed, K. (2017). The gender gap in entrepreneurship–the role of peer effects. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 134, 356–373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2016.12.013.
Marlow, S., & Martinez Dy, A. (2018). Annual review article: Is it time to rethink the gender agenda in entrepreneurship research? International Small Business Journal, 36(1), 3–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/0266242617738321.
Marlow, S., & McAdam, M. (2013). Gender and entrepreneurship: Advancing debate and challenging myths; exploring the mystery of the under-performing female entrepreneur. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 19(1), 114–124. https://doi.org/10.1108/13552551311299288.
Nelson, T., & Constantinidis, C. (2017). Sex and gender in family business succession research: A review and forward agenda from a social construction perspective. Family Business Review, 30(3), 219–241. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894486517715390.
Norton, E. C., Wang, H., & Ai, C. (2004). Computing interaction effects and standard errors in logit and probit models. The Stata Journal, 4(2), 154–167. https://doi.org/10.1177/1536867X0400400206.
Noseleit, F. (2014). Female self-employment and children. Small Business Economics, 43(3), 549–569. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-014-9570-8.
Overbeke, K. K., Bilimoria, D., & Perelli, S. (2013). The dearth of daughter successors in family businesses: Gendered norms, blindness to possibility, and invisibility. Journal of Family Business Strategy, 4(3), 201–212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfbs.2013.07.002.
Pearse, R., & Connell, R. (2016). Gender norms and the economy: Insights from social research. Feminist Economics, 22(1), 30–53. https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2015.1078485.
Plummer, L. A., Allison, T. H., & Connelly, B. L. (2016). Better together? Signaling interactions in new venture pursuit of initial external capital. Academy of Management Journal, 59(5), 1585–1604. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2013.0100.
Rothausen, T. J. (2009). Management work—Family research and work—Family fit: Implications for building family Capital in Family Business. Family Business Review, 22(3), 220–234. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894486509337409.
Schröder, E., Schmitt-Rodermund, E., & Arnaud, N. (2011). Career choice intentions of adolescents with a family business background. Family Business Review, 24(4), 305–321. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894486511416977.
Storey, D. J., & Greene, F. J. (2010). Small business and entrepreneurship. Harlow: Financial Times/Prentice Hall.
Tosun, J. J., Arco-Tirado, J. L., Caserta, M. et al. (2019). Perceived economic self-sufficiency: A country-and generation-comparative approach. European Political Science, 18, 510–531. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41304-018-0186-3.
Wellington, A. J. (2006). Self-employment: The new solution for balancing family and career? Labour Economics, 13(3), 357–386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2004.10.005.
Welter, F., Brush, C., & De Bruin, A. (2014). The gendering of entrepreneurship context. Institut für Mittelstandsforschung Bonn (Hrsg.): Working Paper, 1/14. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2557272.
Williams, R. (2012). Using the margins command to estimate and interpret adjusted predictions and marginal effects. The Stata Journal, 12(2), 308–331. https://doi.org/10.1177/1536867X1201200209.
Zellweger, T., Sieger, P., & Halter, F. (2011). Should I stay or should I go? Career choice intentions of students with family business background. Journal of Business Venturing, 26(5), 521–536. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2010.04.001.