Pervasive negative effects of rewards on intrinsic motivation: The myth continues

*Adorney, K. M. (1983). Facilitating and undermining intrinsic motivation: A test of attribution, cognitive evaluation and competence theories. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Columbia University. *Amabile, T. M., Hennessey, B. A., & Grossman, B. S. (1986). Social influences on creativity: The effects of contracted-for reward. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 14–23. *Anderson, R., Manoogian, S. T., & Reznick, J. S. (1976). The undermining and enhancing of intrinsic motivation in preschool children. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 915–922. *Anderson, S., & Rodin, J. (1989). Is bad news always bad?: Cue and feedback effects on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 19, 449–467. *Arkes, H. R. (1979). Competence and the overjustification effect. Motivation and Emotion, 3, 143–150. *Arnold, H. J. (1976). Effects of performance feedback and extrinsic reward upon high intrinsic motivation. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 17, 275–288. *Arnold, H. J. (1985). Task performance, perceived competence, and attributed causes of performance as determinants of intrinsic motivation. Academy of Management Journal, 28, 876–888. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Baron, A., & Derenne, A. (2000). Quantitative summaries of single-subject studies: What do group comparisons tell us about individual performances? The Behavior Analyst, 23, 101–106. *Bartelme, L.A. (1983). The effects of choice and rewards on intrinsic motivation and performance. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Iowa. Bates, J. A. (1979). Extrinsic reward and intrinsic motivation: A review with implications for the classroom. Review of Educational Research, 49, 557–576. Bernstein, D. J. (1990). Of carrots and sticks: A review of Deci and Ryan’s Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 54, 323–332. *Blanck, P. D., Reis, H. T., & Jackson, L. (1984). The effects of verbal reinforcement of intrinsic motivation for sex-linked tasks. Sex Roles, 10, 369–386. Boal, K. B., & Cummings, L. L. (1981). Cognitive evaluation theory: an experimental test of processes and outcomes. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 28, 289–310. *Boggiano, A. K., & Barrett, M. (1985). Performance and motivational deficits of helplessness: The role of motivational orientations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 1753–1761. *Boggiano, A. K., Harackiewicz, J. M., Besette, J. M., & Main, D. S. (1985). Increasing children’s interest through performance contingent reward. Social Cognition, 3, 400–411. Boggiano, A. K., & Hertel, P.T. (1983). Bonuses and bribes: Mood effects in memory. Social Cognition, 2, 49–61. *Boggiano, A. K., Main, D. S., & Katz, P. A. (1988). Children’s preference for challenge: The role of perceived competence and control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 131–141. *Boggiano, A. K., & Ruble, D. N. (1979). Competence and the overjustification effect: A developmental study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1462–1468. *Boggiano, A. K., Ruble, D. N., & Pittman, T. S. (1982). The mastery hypothesis and the overjustification effect. Social Cognition, 1, 38–49. *Brennan, T. P., & Glover, J. A. (1980). An examination of the effect of extrinsic reinforcers on intrinsically motivated behavior: Experimental and theoretical. Social Behavior and Personality, 8, 27–32. *Brewer, J. (1980). The undermining and enhancing effects of intrinsic motivation: A developmental study. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Ohio State University. *Brockner, J., & Vasta, R. (1981). Do causal attributions mediate the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic interest. Journal of Research in Personality, 15, 201–209. *Butler, R. (1987). Task-involving and ego-involving properties of evaluation: Effects of different feedback conditions on motivational perceptions, interest, and performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 79, 474–482. *Calder, B. J., & Staw, B. M. (1975). Self-perception of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 599–605. Cameron, J., & Pierce, W. D. (1994). Reinforcement, reward and intrinsic motivation: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 64, 363–423. Carton, J. S. (1996). The differential effects of tangible rewards and praise on intrinsic motivation: A comparison of cognitive evaluation theory and operant theory. The Behavior Analyst, 19, 237–255. *Carton, J. S., & Nowicki, S. (1998). Should behavior therapists stop using reinforcement? A reexamination of the undermining effect of reinforcement on intrinsic motivation. Behavior Therapy, 29, 65–86. *Chung, K. T. (1995). The effects of extrinsic reinforcement on intrinsic motivation amongst mildly mentally handicapped children. Curriculum Forum, 4, 98–114. *Cohen, D. S. (1974). The effects of task choice, monetary, and verbal reward on intrinsic motivation: A closer look at Deci’s cognitive evaluation theory. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Ohio State University. Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. *Crino, M. D., & White, M. C. (1982). Feedback effects in intrinsic/extrinsic reward paradigms. Journal of Management, 8, 95–108. *Dafoe, J. L. (1985). Use of rewards in teaching a skill: Effects on competence, self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Stanford University. *Daniel, T. L., & Esser, J. K. (1980). Intrinsic motivation as influenced by rewards, task interest and task structure. Journal of Applied Psychology, 65, 566–573. *Danner, F. W., & Lonkey, E. (1981). A cognitive developmental approach to the effects of rewards on intrinsic motivation. Child Development, 52, 1043–1052. Davidson, P., & Bucher, B. (1978). Intrinsic interest and extrinsic reward: The effects of a continuing token program on continuing non-constrained preference. Behavior Therapy, 9, 222–234. DeCharms, R. (1968). Personal causation. New York: Academic Press. *Deci, E. L. (1971). Effects of externally mediated rewards on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 18, 105–115. *Deci, E. L. (1972a). The effects of contingent and noncontingent rewards and controls on intrinsic motivation. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 8, 217–229. *Deci, E. L. (1972b). Intrinsic motivation, extrinsic reinforcement, and inequity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 22, 113–120. Deci, E. L. (1975). Intrinsic motivation. New York: Plenum Press. *Deci, E. L., Cascio, W. F, & Krusell, J. (1975). Cognitive evaluation theory and some comments on the Calder and Staw critique. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 81–85. Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (1999). A meta-analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 627–668. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum Press. *DeLoach, L. L., Griffith, K., & LaBarba, R. C. (1983). The relationship of group context and intelligence to the overjustification effect. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 21, 291–293. Derenne, A., & Baron, A. (1999). Human sensitivity to reinforcement: A comment on Kollins, Newland, and Critchfield’s (1997) quantitative literature review. The Behavior Analyst, 22, 35–41. Dickinson, A. M. (1989). The detrimental effects of extrinsic reinforcement on “intrinsic motivation.” The Behavior Analyst, 12, 1–15. *Dimitroff, G. (1984). Depression of intrinsically motivated performance by rewards: The role of frustration-mediated contrast effects. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Toronto. *Dollinger, S. J., & Thelen, M. H. (1978). Overjustification and children’s intrinsic motivation: Comparative effects of four rewards. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 1259–1269. *Earn, B. M. (1982). Intrinsic motivation as a function of extrinsic financial rewards and subjects’ locus of control. Journal of Personality, 50, 360–373. *Effron, B. (1976). Effects of self-mediated competency feedback and external incentives on intrinsic motivation and quality of task performance. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Pittsburgh. Eisenberger, R. (1992). Learned industriousness. Psychological Review, 99, 248–267. *Eisenberger, R. (1999). Effects of gender and cooperative-versus-individual performance contingent reward on intrinsic motivation. Unpublished manuscript. Eisenberger, R., & Cameron, J. (1996). The detrimental effects of reward: Myth or reality? American Psychologist, 51, 1153–1166. Eisenberger, R., Pierce, W. D., & Cameron, J. (1999). Effects of reward on intrinsic motivation: Negative, neutral, and positive. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 677–691. *Eisenberger, R., Rhoades, L., & Cameron, J. (1999). Does pay for performance increase or decrease self-determination and intrinsic motivation? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 1026–1040. *Eisenstein, N. (1985). Effects of contractual, endogenous, or unexpected rewards on high and low interest presechoolers. The Psychological Record, 35, 29–39. *Enzle, M. E., Roogeveen, J. P., & Look, S. C. (1991). Self- versus other-reward administration and intrinsic motivation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 27, 468–479. *Fabes, R. A. (1987). Effects of reward contexts on young children’s task interest. Journal of Psychology, 121, 5–19. *Fabes, R. A., Eisenberg, N., Fultz, J., & Miller, P. (1988). Reward, affect and young children’s motivational orientation. Motivation and Emotion, 12, 155–169. *Fabes, R. A., Fultz, J., Eisenberg, N., May-Plumlee, T., & Christopher, F. S. (1989). Effects of rewards on children’s prosocial motivation: A socialization study. Developmental Psychology, 25, 509–515. *Fabes, R. A., McCullers, J. C, & Horn, H. (1986). Children’s task interest and performance: Immediate vs. subsequent effects of rewards. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 12, 17–30. *Feehan, G. G., & Enzle, M. E. (1991). Subjective control over rewards: Effects of perceived choice of reward schedule on intrinsic motivation and behavior maintenance. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 72, 995–1006. Feingold, B. D., & Mahoney, M. J. (1975). Reinforcement effects on intrinsic interest: Undermining the overjustification hypothesis. Behavior Therapy, 6, 357–377. Flora, S. R. (1990). Undermining intrinsic interest from the standpoint of a behaviorist. The Psychological Record, 40, 323–346. Flora, S. R., & Flora, D. B. (1999). Effects of extrinsic reinforcement for reading during childhood on reported reading habits of college students. The Psychological Record, 49, 3–14. *Freedman, S. M., & Phillips, J. S. (1985). The effects of situational performance constraints on intrinsic motivation and satisfaciton: The role of perceived competence and self-determination. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 35, 397–416. *Goldstein, G. S. (1980). The effects of competition and external rewards on intrinsic motivation. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of New Hampshire. *Goldstein, L. W. (1977). Intrinsic motivation: The role of reward and feedback on quality of performance and subsequent interest in photography. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Cornell University. *Greene, D., & Lepper, M. R. (1974). Effects of extrinsic rewards on children’s subsequent intrinsic interest. Child Development, 45, 1141–1145. *Griffith, K. M. (1984). The effects of group versus individual context, initial interest, and reward on intrinsic motivation. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of South Florida. *Griffith, K. M., DeLoach, L. L., & LaBarba, R. C. (1984). The effects of rewarder familiarity and differential reward preference in intrinsic motivation. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 22, 313–316. *Hamner, W. C, & Foster, L. W. (1975). Are intrinsic and extrinsic rewards additive: A test of Deci’s cognitive evaluation theory of task motivation. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 14, 398–415. *Harackiewicz, J. M. (1979). The effects of reward contingency and performance feedback on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1352–1363. *Harackiewicz, J. M., Abrahams, S., & Wageman, R. (1987). Performance evaluation and intrinsic motivation: The effects of evaluative focus, rewards, and achievement orientation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 1015–1023. *Harackiewicz, J. M., & Manderlink, G. (1984). A process analysis of the effects of performance-contingent rewards on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 20, 531–551. *Harackiewicz, J. M., Manderlink, G., & Sansone, C. (1984). Rewarding pinball wizardry: Effects of evaluation and cue value on intrinsic interest. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 287–300. Hedges, L. V. (1981). Distribution theory for Glass’s estimator of effect size and related estimators. Journal of Educational Statistics, 6, 107–128. Hedges, L., & Becker, B. J. (1986). Statistical methods in the meta-analysis of research on gender differences. In J. Hyde & M. C. Linn (Eds.), The psychology of gender: Advances through meta-analysis (pp. 14–50). Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press. Hedges, L., & Olkin, I. (1985). Statistical methods for meta-analysis. Orlando, FL: Academic Press. Hennessey, B. A., & Amabile, T. M. (1998). Reward, intrinsic motivation, and creativity. American Psychologist, 53, 674–675. *Hitt, D. D., Marriott, R. G., & Esser, J. K. (1992). Effects of delayed rewards and task interest on intrinsic motivation. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 13, 405–414. *Horn, H. L. (1987). A methodological note: Time of participation effects on intrinsic motivation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 13, 210–215. Hunter, J. E., & Schmidt, E L. (1990). Methods of meta-analysis: Correcting error and bias in research findings. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. *Hyman, C. (1985). Reward contingency, standards, and intrinsic motivation. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, City University of New York. *Karniol, R., & Ross, M. (1977). The effect of performance relevant and performance irrelevant rewards on children’s intrinsic motivation. Child Development, 48, 482–487. *Kast, A., & Connor, K. (1988). Sex and age differences in response to informational and controlling feedback. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 14, 514–523. *Koestner, R., Zuckerman, M., & Koestner, J. (1987). Praise, involvement, and intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 383–390. Kohn, A. (1993). Punished by rewards. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin. Kohn, A. (1996). By all available means: Cameron and Pierce’s defense of extrinsic motivators. Review of Educational Research, 66, 1–4. Kollins, S. H., Newland, M. C, & Critchfield, T. S. (1997). Human sensitivity to reinforcement in operant choice: How much do consequences matter? Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 4, 208–220. Erratum: Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 4, 431. *Kruglanski, A. W., Alon, S., & Lewis, T. (1972). Retrospective misattribution and task enjoyment. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 8, 493–501. *Kruglanski, A. W., Friedman, I., & Zeevi, G. (1971). The effects of extrinsic incentive on some qualitative aspects of task performance. Journal of Personality, 39, 606–617. *Kruglanski, A. W., Riter, A., Amitai, A., Margolin, B. S., Shabatai, L., & Zaksh, D. (1975). Can money enhance intrinsic motivation?: A test of the content-consequence hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 744–750. *Lee, J. (1982). Effects of absolute and normative feedback and reward on performance and affect. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Iowa. Lepper, M. R. (1998). A whole much less than the sum of its parts. American Psychologist, 53, 675–676. *Lepper, M. R., Greene, D., & Nisbett, R. E. (1973). Undermining children’s intrinsic interest with extrinsic reward: A test of the “overjustification” hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28, 129–137. Lepper, M. R., Keavney, M., & Drake, M. (1996). Intrinsic motivation and extrinsic rewards: A commentary on Cameron and Pierce’s meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 66, 5–32. *Lepper, M. R., Sagotsky, G., Dafoe, J. L., & Greene, D. (1982). Consequences of superfluous social constraints: Effects on young children’s social inferences and subsequent intrinsic interest. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 51–65. *Liberty, H. J. (1986). Intrinsic motivation, extraversion, impulsivity, and reward in a computer game setting. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, City University of New York. Light, R. J., & Pillemer, D. B. (1984). Summing up: The science of reviewing research. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. *Loveland, K. K., & Olley, J. G. (1979). The effect of external reward on interest and quality of task performance in children of high and low intrinsic motivation. Child Development, 50, 1207–1210. *Luvten, H., & Lens, W. (1981). The effect of earlier experience and reward contingencies on intrinsic motivation. Motivation and Emotion, 5, 25–36. Mawhinney, T. C, Dickinson, A. M., & Taylor, L. A. (1989). The use of concurrent schedules to evaluate the effects of extrinsic rewards on “intrinsic motivation.” Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 10, 109–129. *McGraw, K. O., & McCullers, J. C. (1979). Evidence of a detrimental effect of extrinsic incentives on breaking a mental set. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 15, 285–294. *McLoyd, V. C. (1979). The effects of extrinsic rewards of differential value on high and low intrinsic interest. Child Development, 50, 1010–1019. *Morgan, M. (1981). The overjustification effect: A developmental test of self perception interpretations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 809–821. *Morgan, M. (1983). Decrements in intrinsic interest among rewarded and observer subjects. Child Development, 54, 636–644. Morgan, M. (1984). Reward-induced decrements and increments in intrinsic motivation. Review of Educational Research, 54, 5–30. *Mynatt, C, Oakley, D., Piccione, A., Margolis, R., & Arkkelin, J. (1978). An examination of overjustification under conditions of extended observation and multiple reinforcement: Overjustification or boredom? Cognitive Therapy and Research, 2, 171–177. *Newman, J., & Layton, B. D. (1984). Overjustification: A self-perception perspective. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 10, 419–425. *Ogilvie, L., & Prior, M. (1982). The overjustification effect in retarded children: Durability and generalizability. Australia and New Zealand Journal of Developmental Disabilities, 8, 213–218. *Okano, K. (1981). The effects of extrinsic reward on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Child Development, 17, 11–23. *Orlick, T. D., & Mosher, R. (1978). Extrinsic awards and participant motivation in a sport related task. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 9, 27–39. *Overskeid, G., & Svartdal, F. (1996). Effect of reward on subjective autonomy and interest when initial interest is low. Psychological Record, 46, 319–331. *Pallak, S. R., Costomotis, S., Sroka, S., & Pittman, T. S. (1982). School experience, reward characteristics and intrinsic motivation. Child Development, 53, 1382–1391. *Patrick, C. (1985). The effect of level of task difficulty on children’s intrinsic motivation. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Purdue University. *Perry, D. G., Bussey, K., & Redman, J. (1977). Reward-induced decreased play effects: Re-attribution of motivation, competing responses, or avoid frustration? Child Development, 48, 1369–1374. *Phillips, J. S., & Freedman, S. M. (1985). Contingent pay and intrinsic task interest: Moderating effects of work values. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70, 306–313. *Picek, J. S. (1976). Effects of reward uncertainty and ability information on attributions of intrinsic motivation. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Indiana University. *Pittman, T. S., Cooper, E. E., & Smith, T. W. (1977). Attribution of causality and the overjustification effect. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 3, 280–283. *Pittman, T. S., Davey, M. E., Alafat, K. A., Wetherill, K. V, & Kramer, N. A. (1980). Informational versus controlling verbal rewards. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 6, 228–233. Pittman, T. S., Emery, J., & Boggiano, A. K. (1982). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivationalorientations: Reward-induced changes in preference for complexity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 789–797. *Porac, J. F., & Meindl, J. (1982). Undermining overjustification: Inducing intrinsic and extrinsic task representations. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 29, 208–226. *Porter, L. W., & Lawler, E. E. (1968). Managerial attitudes and performance. Homewood, IL: Irwin-Dorsey. *Pretty, G. H., & Seligman, C. (1984). Affect and the overjustification effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 1241–1253. *Reiss, S., & Sushinsky, L. W. (1975). Overjustification, competing responses and the acquisition of intrinsic interest. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 1116–1125. *Rosenfield, D., Folger, R., & Adelman, H. F (1980). When rewards reflect competence: A qualification of the overjustification effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 368–376. *Ross, M. (1975). Salience of reward and intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 245–254. *Ross, M., Karniol, R., & Rothstein, M. (1976). Reward contingency and intrinsic motivation in children: A test of the delay of gratification hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 33, 442–447. Ryan, R. M, & Deci, E. L. (1996). When paradigms clash: Comments on Cameron and Pierce’s claim that rewards do not undermine intrinsic motivation. Review of Educational Research, 66, 33–38. *Ryan, R. M., Mims, B., & Koestner, R. (1983). Relation of reward contingency and interpersonal context to intrinsic motivation: A review and test using cognitive evaluation theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 736–750. *Salincik, G. R. (1975). Interaction effects of performance and money on self-perception of intrinsic motivation. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 13, 339–351. *Sansone, C. (1986). A question of competence: The effects of competence and task feedback on intrinsic interest. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 918–931. *Sansone, C. (1989). Competence feedback, task feedback and intrinsic interest: An examination of process and context. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 25, 343–361. Sansone, C, & Harackiewicz, J.M. (1998). “Reality” is complicated. American Psychologist, 53, 673–674. *Sansone, C, Sachau, D. A., & Weir, C. (1989). Effects of instruction on intrinsic interest: The importance of context. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 819–829. *Sarafino, E. P. (1984). Intrinsic motivation and delay of gratification in preschoolers: The variables of reward salience and length of expected delay. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 2, 149–156. Schunk, D. H. (1983). Reward contingencies and the development of children’s skills and self-efficacy. Journal of Educational Psychology, 75, 511–518. Schunk, D. H. (1984). Enhancing self-efficacy and achievement through rewards and goals: Motivational and informational effects. Journal of Educational Research, 78, 29–34. Schwarzer, R. (1991). Meta: Programs for secondary data analysis. MS-DOS Version 5.0 [computer program]. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown. *Shanab, M. E., Peterson, D., Dargahi, S., & Deroian, P. (1981). The effects of positive and negative verbal feedback on the intrinsic motivation of male and female subjects. Journal of Social Psychology, 115, 195–205. *Shapira, Z. (1976). Expectancy determinants of intrinsically motivated behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 1235–1244. *Shiffman-Kauffman, S. E. (1990). The effects of reward contingency and type of learning experience on intrinsic motivation. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, City University of New York. Skaggs, K. J., Dickinson, A. M., & O’Connor, K. A. (1992). The use of concurrent schedules to evaluate the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation: A replication. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 12, 45–83. *Smith, A. T. (1980). Effects of symbolic reward and positive feedback on high and low levels of intrinsic motivation in preschoolers. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Missouri-Columbia. *Smith, T. W., & Pittman, T. S. (1978). Reward, distraction, and the overjustification effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 565–573. *Smith, W. E. (1975). The effect of anticipated vs. unanticipated social reward on subsequent intrinsic motivation. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Cornell University. *Sorensen, R. L., & Maehr, M. L. (1976). Toward the experimental analysis of “continuing motivation.” Journal of Educational Research, 69, 319–322. *Staw, B. M., Calder, B. J., Hess, R. K., & Sanderlands, L. E. (1980). Intrinsic motivation and norms about payment. Journal of Personality, 48, 1–14. *Swann, W. B., Jr., & Pittman, T. S. (1977). Moderating influence of verbal cues on intrinsic motivation. Child Development, 48, 1128–1132. *Taub, S. I., & Dollinger, S. J. (1975). Reward and purpose as incentives for children differing in locus of control expectancies. Journal of Personality, 43, 179–195. *Thompson, E. P., Chaiken, S., & Hazlewood, D. (1993). Need for cognition and desire for control as moderators of extrinsic reward effects: A person × situation approach to the study of intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 987–999. *Tripathi, K. N. (1991). Effect of contingency and timing of reward on intrinsic motivation. Journal of General Psychology, 118, 97–105. *Tripathi, K. N., & Agarwal, A. (1985). Effects of verbal and tangible rewards on intrinsic motivation in males and females. Psychological Studies, 30, 77–84. *Tripathi, K. N., & Agarwal, A. (1988). Effect of reward contingency on intrinsic motivation. Journal of General Psychology, 115, 241–246. *Vallerand, R.J. (1983). The effect of differential amounts of positive verbal feedback on the intrinsic motivation of male hockey players. Journal of Sport Psychology, 5, 100–107. *Vallerand, R. J., & Reid, G. (1984). On the causal effects of perceived competence on intrinsic motivation: A test of cognitive evaluation theory. Journal of Sport Psychology, 6, 94–102. Vasta, R., Andrews, D. E., McLaughlin, A. M., Stirpe, L. A., & Comfort, C. (1978). Reinforcement effects on intrinsic interest: A classroom analog. Journal of School Psychology, 16, 161–168. *Vasta, R., & Stirpe, L. A. (1979). Reinforcement effects on three measures of children’s interest in math. Behavior Modification, 3, 223–244. Vroom, V. (1964). Work and motivation. New York: Wiley. *Weinberg, R. S., & Jackson, A. (1979). Competition and extrinsic rewards: Effect on intrinsic motivation and attribution. Research Quarterly, 50, 494–502. *Weiner, M. J. (1980). The effect of incentive and control over outcomes upon intrinsic motivation and performance. Journal of Social Psychology, 112, 247–254. *Weiner, M. J., & Mander, A. M. (1978). The effects of reward and perception of competency upon intrinsic motivation. Motivation and Emotion, 2, 67–73. *Wicker, F. W, Brown, G., Wiehe, J. A., & Shim, W. Y. (1990). Moods, goals, and measures of intrinsic motivation. Journal of Psychology, 124, 75–86. *Williams, B. W. (1980). Reinforcement, behavior constraint and the overjustification effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 599–614. *Wilson, R. L. (1978). The effect of reward on intrinsic motivation: An integration of dissonance and intrinsic motivation studies. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, North Carolina State University. *Wimperis, B. R., & Farr, J. L. (1979). The effects of task content and reward contingency upon task performance and satisfaction. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 9, 229–249. *Yuen, W C. (1984). Self-schema, task information, extrinsic reward and intrinsic motivation. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Simon Fraser University, Canada. *Zinser, O., Young, J. G., & King, P. E. (1982). The influence of verbal reward on intrinsic motivation in children. Journal of General Psychology, 106, 85–91.