Offline and Online Civic Engagement Among Adolescents and Young Adults from Three Ethnic Groups

Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. doi:10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T. Alozie, N. O., Simon, J., & Merrill, B. D. (2003). Gender and political orientation in childhood. The Social Science Journal, 40(1), 1–18. American Psychological Association (2012). Civic engagement. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/education/undergrad/civic-engagement.aspx. Bandura, A. (1999). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. In R. F. Baumeister (Ed.), Key readings in social psychology. The self in social psychology (pp. 285–298). New York, NY: Psychology Press. Berg, M., Coman, E., & Schensul, J. J. (2009). Youth action research for prevention: A multi-level intervention designed to increase efficacy and empowerment among urban youth. American Journal of Community Psychology, 43(3), 345–359. doi:10.1007/s10464-009-9231-2. Briggs, J. E. (2008). Young women and politics: An oxymoron? Journal of Youth Studies, 11(6), 579–592. Bundesministerium, des Inneren (2009). Migrationsbericht des Bundesamtes für Migration und Flüchtlinge im Auftrag der Bundesregierung: Migrationsbericht 2007 [Migration report of the federal bureau for migration and fugitives commissioned by the federal government: Migration report 2007]. Nürnberg: Retrieved from http://www.bmi.bund.de/cae/servlet/contentblob/297624/publicationFile/14808/migrationsbericht_2007.pdf. Chadwick, A. (2006). Internet politics. States, citizens and new communication technologies. New York NY: Oxford University Press. Cicognani, E., Zani, B., Fournier, B., Gavray, C., & Born, M. (2012). Gender differences in youths’ political engagement and participation. The role of parents and of adolescents’ social and civic participation. Journal of Adolescence, 35, 561–576. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.10.002. CivicWeb. (2008). Uses of the web for civic participation. Retrieved July 31, 2012, from http://www.civicweb.eu/images/stories/reports/wp9civicwebdeliverable8.pdf. Collom, E. (2011). Motivations and differential participation in a community currency system: The dynamics within a local social movement organization. Sociological Forum, 26(1), 144–168. doi:10.1111/j.1573-7861.2010.01228.x. Crocetti, E., Jahromi, P., & Buchanan, C. M. (2012a). Commitment to community and political involvement: A cross-cultural study with Italian and American adolescents. Human Affairs, 22, 375–389. doi:10.2478/s13374-012-0031-2. Crocetti, E., Jahromi, P., & Meeus, W. (2012b). Identity and civic engagement in adolescence. Journal of Adolescence, 35, 521–532. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.08.003. Da Silva, L., Sanson, A., Smart, D., & Toumbourou, J. (2004). Civic responsibility among Australian adolescents: Testing two competing models. Journal of Community Psychology, 32(3), 229–255. doi:10.1002/jcop.20004. Dahlgren, P. (Ed.). (2007). Young citizens and new media: Learning for democratic participation. New York, NY: Routledge.Eckstein, K., Noack, P., & Gniewosz, B. (2012, March).Political participation in adolescence and young adulthood: The meaning of individual and social influences. Paper presented at the Second International Conference on Processes Influencing Democratic Ownership and Participation, Guildford. Flanagan, C. A., Bowes, J. M., Jonsson, B., Csapo, B., & Sheblanova, E. (1998). Ties that bind: Correlates of adolescents’ civic commitments in seven countries. Journal of Social Issues, 54(3), 457–475. doi:10.1111/0022-4537.771998077. Flanagan, C. A., & Gallay, L. S. (1995). Reframing the meaning of “political” in research with adolescents. Perspectives on Political Science, 24, 34–41. Fletcher, A. C., Elder, G. H., & Mekos, D. (2000). Parental influences on adolescent involvement in community activities. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 10(1), 29–48. doi:10.1207/SJRA1001_2. Foster-Bey, J. (2008). Do race, ethnicity, citizenship and socio-economic status determine civic-engagement? Retrieved from http://www.civicyouth.org/PopUps/WorkingPapers/WP62_Foster.Bey.pdf. Fridkin, K. L. (2006). On the margins of democratic life: The impact of race and ethnicity on the political engagement of young people. American Politics Research, 34(5), 605–626. doi:10.1177/1532673X06289158. Gallego, A. (2007). Inequality in political participation: Contemporary patterns in European countries. Retrieved from http://escholarship.org/uc/item/3545w14v. Hart, D., & Atkins, R. (2002). Civic competence in urban youth. Applied Developmental Science, 6(4), 227–236. doi:10.1207/S1532480XADS0604_10. Hart, D., & Gullan, R. L. (2010). The sources of adolescent activism: Historical and contemporary findings. In L. R. Sherrod, J. Torney-Purta, & C. A. Flanagan (Eds.), Handbook of research on civic engagement (pp. 67–90). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Havinghurst, R. J. (1972). Developmental tasks and education. New York, NY: Longmans Green. Hirzalla, F., & van Zoonen, L. (2011). Beyond the online/offline divide: How youth’s online and offline civic activities converge. Social Science Computer Review, 29(4), 481–498. doi:10.1177/0894439310385538. House, J. S., & Williams, D. R. (2000). Understanding and reducing socioeconomic and racial/ethnic disparities in health. In B. D. Smedley & S. L. Syme (Eds.), Promoting health: Intervention strategies from social and behavioral research (pp. 81–125). Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Hu, L.-T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55. Jenkins, K. (2005). Gender and civic engagement: Secondary analysis of survey data. CIRCLE Working Paper 41, June. Center for Information and Research on Civic Learning and Engagement, Tufts University. Jugert, P., Benbow, A., Noack, P., & Eckstein, K. (2011). Politische Partizipation und soziales Engagement unter jungen Deutschen, Türken und Spätaussiedlern: Befunde aus einer qualitativen Untersuchung mit Fokusgruppen [Political participation and social engagement among young Germans, Turks, and resettlers: Findings from a qualitative study with focus groups]. Politische Psychologie, 1, 36–51. Kelloway, E. K., Francis, L., Catano, V. M., & Teed, M. (2007). Predicting protest. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 29(1), 13–22. Klandermans, B. (1997). The social psychology of protest. Oxford: Blackwell. Klandermans, B. (2004). The demand and supply of participation: Social-psychological correlates of participation in social movements. In D. Snow, S. Soule, & H. Kriesi (Eds.), The Blackwell companion to social movements (pp. 360–379). Malden: Blackwell. Kline, R. B. (1998). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. New York, NY: Guildford Press. Knoke, D., & Wright-Isak, C. (1982). Individual motives and organizational incentive systems. Research in the Sociology of Organizations, 1, 209–254. Kuhn, H. P. (2010). International perspectives on political socialization and gender: An introduction. In A. Ittel, H. Merkens, L. Stecher, & J. Zinnecker (Eds.), Jahrbuch Jugendforschung [Yearbook of youth research] 8 (2008/2009) (pp. 11–24). Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften. doi: 10.1007/978-3-531-92320-8_1. Little, T. D., Cunningham, W. A., & Shanar, G. (2002). To parcel or not to parcel: Exploring the question, weighing the merits. Structural Equation Modeling, 9(2), 151–173. Livingstone, S., Bober, M., & Helsper, E. J. (2005). Active participation or just more information? Young people’s take-up of opportunities to act and interact on the internet. Information, Communication & Society, 8(3), 287–314. doi:10.1080/13691180500259103. Lyons, E. (2008). Political trust and political participation amongst young people from ethnic minorities in the NIS and EU: A social psychological investigation. Queen’s University Belfast, NI: Final Report. Mayer, J. D., & Schmidt, H. M. (2004). Gender political socialization in four contexts: Political interest and values among junior high school students in China, Japan, Mexico, and the United States. The Social Science Journal, 41, 393–407. Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2010). Mplus user’s guide: Sixth Edition. Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén. Niemi, R. G., Hepburn, M. A., & Chapman, C. (2000). Community service by high school students: A cure for civic ills? Political Behavior, 22(1), 45–69. doi:10.1023/A:1006690417623. Omoto, A. M., & Snyder, M. (2002). Considerations of community: The context and process of volunteerism. American Behavioral Scientist, 45(5), 846–867. doi:10.1177/0002764202045005007. Oswald, H., & Schmid, C. (1998). Political participation of young people in East Germany. German Politics, 7(3), 147–164. doi:10.1080/09644009808404531. Oswald, H., & Schmid, C. (2006). The influence of parents and peers on political participation of adolescents in the new states of Germany. In M. Hofer, A. Sliwka, & M. Diedrich (Eds.), Citizen education in youth - theory, research, and practice (pp. 85–96). Münster: Waxmann. Pancer, M. S., Pratt, M., Hunsberger, B., & Alisat, S. (2007). Community and political involvement in adolescence: What distinguishes the activists from the uninvolved? Journal of Community Psychology, 35(6), 741–759. doi:10.1002/jcop.20176. Park, N., & Yang, A. (2012). Online environmental community members’ intention to participate in environmental activities: An application of the theory of planned behavior in the Chinese context. Computers in Human Behavior, 28(4), 1298–1306. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2012.02.013. Pattie, C., Seyd, P., & Whiteley, P. (2003). Citizenship and civic engagement: Attitudes and behaviour in Britain. Political Studies, 51(3), 443–468. doi:10.1111/1467-9248.00435. Penner, L. A. (2002). Dispositional and organizational influences on sustained volunteerism: An interactionist perspective. Journal of Social Issues, 58(3), 447–467. doi:10.1111/1540-4560.00270. Portney, K. E., Eichenberg, R. C., & Niemi, R. G. (2009). Gender differences in political and civic engagement among young people. Retrieved from http://ase.tufts.edu/polsci/faculty/eichenberg/NiemiPortneyEichenbergAug26.pdf. Prout, A. (2000). Children’s participation: Control and self-realisation in British late modernity. Children and Society, 14(4), 304–315. Raynes-Goldie, K., & Walker, L. (2008). Our space: Online civic engagement tools for youth. In W. L. Bennett (Ed.), Civic life online: Learning how digital media can engage youth (pp. 161–188). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Schlozman, K. L., Verba, S., & Brady, H. (1999). Civic participation and the equality problem. In T. Skocpol & M. Fiorina (Eds.), Civic engagement in American democracy (pp. 427–460). Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press. Sherrod, L. R., & Baskir, L. R. (2010). Gender differences in the political interests of U.S. high school students. In A. Ittel, H. Merkens, L. Stecher, & J. Zinnecker (Eds.), Jahrbuch Jugendforschung 8 (2008/2009) (pp. 105–130). Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften. Sherrod, L. R., Flanagan, C., & Youniss, J. (2002). Dimensions of citizenship and opportunities for youth development: The what, why, when, where, and who of citizenship development. Applied Developmental Science, 6(4), 264–272. doi:10.1207/s1532480xads0604_14. Stepick, A., Stepick, C. D., & Labissiere, Y. (2008). South Florida’s immigrant youth and civic engagement: Major engagement: Minor differences. Applied Developmental Science, 12(2), 57–65. doi:10.1080/10888690801997036. Suler, J. (2004). The online disinhibition effect. CyberPsychology and Behavior, 7(3), 321–326. doi:10.1089/1094931041291295. Torney-Purta, J., Barber, C. H., & Wilkenfeld, B. (2007). Latino adolescents’ civic development in the United States: Research results from the IEA civic education study. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36(2), 111–125. doi:10.1007/s10964-006-9121-y. Torney-Purta, J., Lehmann, R., Oswald, H., & Schulz, W. (2001). Citizenship and education in twenty-eight countries: civic knowledge at age fourteen. Amsterdam: IEA. van Zomeren, M., Postmes, T., & Spears, R. (2008). Toward an integrative social identity model of collective action: A quantitative research synthesis of three socio-psychological perspectives. Psychological Bulletin, 134(4), 504–535. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.134.4.504. Verba, S., Schlozman, K. L., & Brady, H. (1995). Voice and equality: Civic voluntarism in American politics. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Verkuyten, M., & Masson, K. (1996). Culture and gender differences in the perception of friendship by adolescents. International Journal of Psychology, 31, 207–217. doi:10.1080/002075996401089. Wang, M., & Hu, X. (2012). Agent-based modeling and simulation of community collective efficacy. Computational and Mathematical Organization Theory, Advance online publication.,. doi:10.1007/s10588-012-9107-0. Watts, M. W. (1999). Are there typical age curves in political behavior? The “age invariance” hypothesis and political socialization. Political Psychology, 20(3), 477–499. doi:10.1111/0162-895X.00153. Weithorn, L. A. (1998). Youth participation in family and community decision making. Family Futures, 2(1), 6–9. Wilkenfeld, B., Lauckhardt, J., & Torney-Purta, J. (2010). The relation between developmental theory and measures of civic engagement in research on adolescents. In L. R. Sherrod, J. Torney-Purta, & C. Flanagan (Eds.), Handbook of research and policy on civic engagement in youth (pp. 193–220). New York: Wiley. Yeich, S., & Levine, R. (1994). Political efficacy: Enhancing the construct and its relationship to mobilization of people. Journal of Community Psychology, 22(3), 259–271. doi:10.1002/1520-6629(199407)22:3<259:AID-JCOP2290220306>3.0.CO;2-H. Youniss, J., Bales, S., Christmas-Best, V., Diversi, M., McLaughlin, M., & Silbereisen, R. (2002). Youth civic engagement in the twenty-first century. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 12(1), 121–148. doi:10.1111/1532-7795.00027. Zaff, J. F., Malanchuk, O., Michelsen, E., & Eccles, J. (2003) Promoting positive citizenship: Priming youth for action. CIRCLE Working Paper 05. Retrieved November 10, 2010, from http://www.Civicyouth.org/?page_id=139. Zukin, C., Keeter, S., Andolina, M., Jenkins, K., & Delli Carpini, M. X. (2006). A new engagement? Political participation, civic life, and the changing American citizen. New York: Oxford University Press.