Mechanical Ventilation during Acute Brain-Injury in Children

Seder, 2015, Emergency neurological life support: airway, ventilation and sedation, Neurocrit Care, 23, S5, 10.1007/s12028-015-0164-3 Plum, 1980 Bolton, 2004 Berthiaume, 1988, Alveolar liquid and protein clearance from normal dog lungs, J Appl Physiol, 65, 585, 10.1152/jappl.1988.65.2.585 Moutier, 1918, Hypertension et mort par oedema pulmonaire aigu, chez les blesses cranio-encephaliques, Presse Med, 26, 108 Shanahan, 1908, Pulmonary oedema in epilepsy, NY Med J, 37, 54 Bratton, 1997, Acute lung injury in isolated traumatic brain injury, Neurosurgery, 40, 707, 10.1097/00006123-199704000-00009 Smith, 1997, Evidence for a hydrostatic mechanism in human neurogenic pulmonary edema, Chest, 111, 1326, 10.1378/chest.111.5.1326 Maron, 1980, Pulmonary venoconstriction caused by elevated cerebrospinal fluid pressure in the dog, J Appl Physiol Respir Environ Exerc Physiology, 49, 73 Hoff, 1981, Experimental Neurogenic pulmonary edema. Part 1: The role of systemic hypertension, J Neurosurg, 54, 627, 10.3171/jns.1981.54.5.0627 Sedy, 2012, The role of sympathetic nervous system in the development of neurogenic pulmonary edema in spinal cord-injured rats, J Appl Physiol (1985), 112, 1, 10.1152/japplphysiol.00574.2011 Sedy, 2015, Pathogenetic mechanisms of neurogenic pulmonary edema, J Neurotrauma Macmillan, 2002, Pulmonary and cardiac sequelae of subarachnoid haemorrhage: time for active management?, Intensive Care Med, 28, 1012, 10.1007/s00134-002-1382-7 Bahloul, 2006, Neurogenic pulmonary edema due to traumatic brain injury: evidence of cardiac dysfunction, Am J Crit Care, 15, 462, 10.4037/ajcc2006.15.5.462 Mayer, 1999, Myocardial Injury and left ventricular performance after subarachnoid hemorrhage, Stroke, 30, 780, 10.1161/01.STR.30.4.780 Colice, 1984, Neurogenic pulmonary edema, Am Rev Respir Dis, 130, 941 Mascia, 2009, Acute lung injury in patients with severe brain injury: a double hit model, Neurocrit Care, 11, 417, 10.1007/s12028-009-9242-8 Hutchinson, 2007, Inflammation in human brain injury: intracerebral concentrations of IL-1alpha, IL-1beta and their endogenous inhibitor IL-1ra, J Neurotrauma, 24, 1545, 10.1089/neu.2007.0295 Mascia, 2007, High tidal volume is associated with the development of acute lung injury after severe brain injury: an international observational study, Crit Care Med, 35, 1815, 10.1097/01.CCM.0000275269.77467.DF Bickenbach, 2009, Low tidal volume ventilation in a porcine model of acute lung injury improves cerebral tissue oxygenation, Anesth Analg, 109, 847, 10.1213/ane.0b013e3181ad5769 Holland, 2003, The development of acute lung injury is associated with worse neurologic outcome in patients with severe traumatic brain injury, J Trauma, 55, 106, 10.1097/01.TA.0000071620.27375.BE Hopkins, 2006, Brain atrophy and cognitive impairment in survivors of acute respiratory distress syndrome, Brain Inj, 20, 263, 10.1080/02699050500488199 Kety, 1948, The effects of altered arterial tensions of carbon dioxide and oxygen on cerebral blood flow and cerebral oxygen consumption of normal young men, J Clin Invest, 27, 484, 10.1172/JCI101995 Artru, 1989, Autoregulation of cerebral blood flow during normocapnia and hypocapnia in dogs, Anesthesiology, 70, 288, 10.1097/00000542-198902000-00018 Vanderhaegen, 2009, The effect of changes in tPCO2 on the fractional tissue oxygen extraction – as measured by near-infrared spectroscopy – in neonates during the first days of life, Eur J Paediatr Neurol, 13, 128, 10.1016/j.ejpn.2008.02.012 Pryds, 1990, Cerebral blood flow reactivity in spontaneously breathing, preterm infants shortly after birth, Acta Paediatr Scand, 79, 391, 10.1111/j.1651-2227.1990.tb11482.x Rowney, 2002, Cerebrovascular carbon dioxide reactivity in children anaesthetized with sevoflurane, Br J Anaesth, 88, 357, 10.1093/bja/88.3.357 Collins, 2001, Hypocapnia and other ventilation-related risk factors for cerebral palsy in low birth weight infants, Pediatr Res, 50, 712, 10.1203/00006450-200112000-00014 Pappas, 2011, Hypocarbia and adverse outcome in neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, J Pediatr, 158, 752, 10.1016/j.jpeds.2010.10.019 Hou, 2007, Research on the relationship between brain anoxia at different regional oxygen saturations and brain damage using near-infrared spectroscopy, Physiol Meas, 28, 1251, 10.1088/0967-3334/28/10/010 Kochanek, 2012, Guidelines for the acute medical management of severe traumatic brain injury in infants, children, and adolescents—second edition: Chapter 13. Hyperventilation, Pediatr Crit Care Med, 13, S58, 10.1097/PCC.0b013e31823f67d0 Skippen, 1997, Effect of hyperventilation on regional cerebral blood flow in head-injured children, Crit Care Med, 25, 1402, 10.1097/00003246-199708000-00031 Tasker, 2005, Hyperventilation in severe diabetic ketoacidosis, Pediatr Crit Care Med, 6, 405, 10.1097/01.PCC.0000164343.20418.37 Tasker, 2006, Cerebrospinal Fluid Ion and Acid-Base Balance, Pediatr Crit Care Med, 7, 94, 10.1097/01.PCC.0000194008.66574.AE Hansen, 1974, Acid-base pattern of cerebrospinal fluid and arterial blood in bacterial meningitis and in encephalitis, Acta Med Scand, 196, 431, 10.1111/j.0954-6820.1974.tb01035.x Moller, 2000, Regional cerebral blood flow during hyperventilation in patients with acute bacterial meningitis, Clin Physiol, 20, 399, 10.1046/j.1365-2281.2000.00276.x Moller, 2002, Cerebral blood flow, oxidative metabolism and cerebrovascular carbon dioxide reactivity in patients with acute bacterial meningitis, Acta Anaesthesiol Scand, 46, 567, 10.1034/j.1399-6576.2002.460515.x Steiner, 2003, Cerebral oxygen vasoreactivity and cerebral tissue oxygen reactivity, Br J Anaesth, 90, 774, 10.1093/bja/aeg104 Roach, 2008, Management of Stroke in Infants and Children: A Scientific Statement From a Special Writing Group of the American Heart Association Stroke Council and the Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, Stroke, 39, 2644, 10.1161/STROKEAHA.108.189696 Jauch, 2013, Guidelines for the early management of patients with acute ischemic stroke: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association, Stroke, 44, 870, 10.1161/STR.0b013e318284056a Ramaiah, 2013, Admission oxygenation and ventilation parameters associated with discharge survival in severe pediatric traumatic brain injury, Childs Nerv Syst, 29, 629, 10.1007/s00381-012-1984-5 Narotam, 2006, Cerebral oxygenation in major pediatric trauma: its relevance to trauma severity and outcome, J Pediatr Surg, 41, 505, 10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2005.11.069 Figaji, 2008, Does adherence to treatment targets in children with severe traumatic brain injury avoid brain hypoxia?. A brain tissue oxygenation study, Neurosurgery, 63, 83, 10.1227/01.NEU.0000335074.39728.00 Bratton, 2007, Brain Trauma Foundation guidelines for the management of severe traumatic brain injury: X. Brain oxygen monitoring and thresholds, J Neurotrauma, 24 S1, S65, 10.1089/neu.2007.9986 Pascual, 2011, Reduced brain tissue oxygen in traumatic brain injury: are most commonly used interventions successful?, J Trauma, 70, 535, 10.1097/TA.0b013e31820b59de Van Bel, 2008, Monitoring neonatal cerebral oxygen saturation in clinical practice: value and pitfalls, Neonatology, 94, 237, 10.1159/000151642 Budohoski, 2012, What comes first? The dynamics of cerebral oxygenation and blood flow in response to changes in arterial pressure and intracranial pressure after head injury, Br J Anaesth, 108, 89, 10.1093/bja/aer324 Rosenthal, 2014, Assessment of a noninvasive cerebral oxygenation monitor in patients with severe traumatic brain injury, J Neurosurg, 120, 901, 10.3171/2013.12.JNS131089 Davies, 2015, Near-Infrared Spectroscopy in the Monitoring of Adult Traumatic Brain Injury: A Review, J Neurotrauma, 32, 1, 10.1089/neu.2014.3748 2000, Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung in- jury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome, N Engl J Med, 342, 1301, 10.1056/NEJM200005043421801 Golan, 2011, Choosing brain over lungs: who wins?, Crit Care Med, 39, 1595, 10.1097/CCM.0b013e318215c0d1 Zhou, 2010, Effects of permissive hypercapnia on transient global cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury in rats, Anesthesiology, 112, 288, 10.1097/ALN.0b013e3181ca8257 Hagen, 2008, Permissive hypercapnia and risk for brain injury and developmental impairment, Pediatrics, 122, e583, 10.1542/peds.2008-1016 Zayek, 2014, Acidemia versus hypercapnia and risk for intraventricular hemorrhage, Am J Perinatol, 31, 345 Petridis, 2010, The effect of lung-protective permissive hypercapnia in intracerebral pressure in patients with subarachnoid haemorrhage and ARDS. A retrospective study, Acta Neurochir, 152, 2143, 10.1007/s00701-010-0761-z Tasker, 1998, Combined lung injury, meningitis and cerebral edema: how permissive can hypercapnia be?, Intensive Care Med, 24, 616, 10.1007/s001340050624 Grasso, 2007, ARDSnet ventilator protocol and alveolar hyperinflation: role of positive end-expiratory pressure, Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 176, 761, 10.1164/rccm.200702-193OC Feldman, 1992, Effect of head elevation on intracranial pressure, cerebral perfusion pressure, and cerebral blood flow in head-injured patients, J Neurosurg, 76, 207, 10.3171/jns.1992.76.2.0207 Pulitano, 2013, Effects of positive end expiratory pressure (PEEP) on intracranial and cerebral perfusion pressure in pediatric neurosurgical patients, J Neurosurg Anesthesiol, 25, 330, 10.1097/ANA.0b013e31828bac4d Tasker, 2014, Intracranial pressure and cerebrovascular autoregulation in pediatric critical illness, Semin Pediatr Neurol, 21, 255, 10.1016/j.spen.2014.10.004