Gender inequality in mobility and mode choice in Pakistan
Tóm tắt
Using the nationally representative dataset of the 2007 Pakistan Time-Use Survey, this paper examines gender differences in daily trip rate, mode choice, travel duration, and purpose of travel, which are previously unreported because of limited data availability. Wide gender mobility gaps are observed in the country, where women are less likely to travel, are half as mobile as men and may rely heavily on walking. The particular social and cultural context of the country, that renders women as private, secluded and family honor, seems influential in shaping their mobility and choice of activities. Demographic factors such as age, household income, and marital status significantly decrease female mobility levels. Hence, these findings call for a gender-based culturally responsive transportation policy in the country.
Tài liệu tham khảo
Adeel, M., Yeh, A.G.O., Zhang, F.: Gender, mobility and travel behavior in Pakistan: Analysis of 2007 Time Use Survey. In: 5th International Conference on Women’s Issues in Transportation—Bridging the Gap, 14–16 April. Paris, France Federation Internationale de I’Automobile (2014)
Adeel, M., Yeh, A.G.O., Zhang, F.: Transportation disadvantage and activity participation in the cities of Rawalpindi and Islamabad, Pakistan. Transp. Policy. 47, 1–12 (2016)
Babinard, J., Scott, K.: What do existing household surveys tell us about gender and transportation in developing countries? In: Conference on Research on Women’s Issues in Transportation, Chicago Illinois, United States 2009, pp. 213–224. Transportation Research Board Conference (2009)
Baker, J., Basu, R., Cropper, M., Lall, S., Takeuchi, A.: Urban poverty and transport the case of Mumbai. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3693 (2005)
Bamberg, S., Hunecke, M., Blöbaum, A.: Social context, personal norms and the use of public transportation: two field studies. J. Environ. Psychol. 27(1), 190–203 (2007)
Bland, B.H.: Land-use patterns and travel. Land use patterns and travel. Special Research Branch, Safety and Transportation Department, Transport and Road Research Laboratory, Crowthorne, Berkshire (1983)
Bussey, K., Bandura, A.: Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation. Psychol. Rev. 106(4), 676 (1999)
Carrasco, J.A., Farber, S.: Selected papers on the study of the social context of travel behaviour. Transp. Res. Part APolicy Pract. 68, 1–2 (2014)
Crane, R.: Is there a quiet revolution in women’s travel? Revisiting the gender gap in commuting. J. Am. Plann. Assoc. 73(3), 298–316 (2007)
Dobbs, L.: Wedded to the car: women, employment and the importance of private transport. Transp. Policy 12(3), 266–278 (2005)
Elias, W., Shiftan, Y.: Gender differences in travel behavior in the arab world: comparison of case studies from Jordan and Israel. In: 5th International Conference on Women’s Issues in Transportation—Bridging the Gap, 14–16 April. Paris, France Feederation Internationale de I’Automobile (2014)
Gerike, R., Gehlert, T., Leisch, F.: Time use in travel surveys and time use surveys–Two sides of the same coin? Transp. Res. Part A: Policy Pract. 76, 4–24 (2015)
Gossen, R., Purvis, C.L.: Activities, time, and travel. Research on Women’s Issues in Transportation, 21 (2004)
GOP: Pakistan Economic Survey 2012–13, Islamabad, Pakistan (2015)
Handy, S.: Methodologies for exploring the link between urban form and travel behavior. Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ. 1(2), 151–165 (1996)
Hanson, S.: Gender and mobility: new approaches for informing sustainability. Gender Place Culture 17(1), 5–23 (2010)
Hanson, S., Hanson, P.: Gender and urban activity patterns in Uppsala, Sweden. Geogr. Rev. 70(3), 291–299 (1980)
Harvey, A.S., Niemi, I.: An international standard activity classification: toward a framework, relevant issues. Paper Presented at the International Association for Time Use Research Workshop, Amsterdam (1993)
Harvey, A., Taylor, M.: Activity settings and travel behaviour: a social contact perspective. Transportation 27(1), 53–73 (2000)
Heward, C., Bunwaree, S.: Gender, education and development: beyond access to empowerment. Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke (1999)
Hubert, J.P., Armoogum, J., Axhausen, K.W., Madre, J.L.: Immobility and mobility seen through trip-based versus time-use surveys. Transp. Rev. 28(5), 641–658 (2008)
Imran, M.: Sustainable urban transport in Pakistan: an institutional analysis. Int. Plann. Stud. 15(2), 119–141 (2010)
Jejeebhoy, S.J., Sathar, Z.A.: Women’s autonomy in India and Pakistan: the influence of religion and region. Popul. Dev. Rev. 27(4), 687–712 (2001)
Khan, A.: Mobility of women and access to health and family planning services in Pakistan. Reprod. Health Matter 7(14), 39–48 (1999)
Law, R.: Beyond ‘women and transport’: towards new geographies of gender and daily mobility. Prog. Hum. Geogr. 23(4), 567–588 (1999)
Levinson, D., Kumar, A.: Activity, travel, and the allocation of time. J. Am. Plann. Assoc. 61(4), 458 (1995)
Li, H., Guensler, R.L., Ogle, J.: Comparing women’s and men’s morning commute trip chaining in Atlanta, Georgia, by using instrumented vehicle activity data. In: Conference on Research on Women’s Issues in Transportation, Transportation Research Board, pp. 14-20. Chicago Illinois, United States (2004)
Michelson, W.: Time use: expanding explanation in the social sciences. Paradigm Publishers, Boulder, CO (2005)
Mumtaz, Z., Salway, S., Waseem, M., Umer, N.: Gender-based barriers to primary health care provision in Pakistan: the experience of female providers. Health Policy Plann. 18(3), 261–269 (2003)
Noble, B.: Using simple time use surveys to investigate travel. In: International Conference on Transport Survey Quality and Innovation: How to Recognise It and How to Achieve It, South Africa (2001)
Pakistan Bureau of Statistics: Time Use Survey 2007 - Final Report. Islamabad, Pakistan (2008)
Papanek, H.: Purdah in Pakistan: seclusion and modern occupations for women. J. Marriage Family 33(3), 517–530 (1971)
Pendyala, R.: Time use and travel behavior in space and time. In: Goulias, K.G. (ed.) Transportation Systems Planning: Methods and Applications. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL (2002)
Pentland, W.E., Harvey, A.S., Lawton, M.P., McColl, M.A. (eds.): Time Use Research in the Social Sciences. Kluwer Academic Publishing Group, New York (1999)
Porter, G.: Living in a Walking world: rural mobility and social equity issues in Sub-Saharan Africa. World Dev. 30(2), 285–300 (2002)
Rajé, F.: Negotiating the transport system: user contexts, experiences and needs. Ashgate, Aldershot, Burlington, VT (2007)
Reichman, S.: Travel adjustments and life styles - a behavioral approach. In: Stopher, P.R., Meyburg, A.H. (eds.) Behavioral Travel-Demand Models. Lexington Books, Lexington, MA (1976)
Rosenbloom, S.: Understanding women’s and men’s travel patterns the research challenge. In: Research on Women’s Issues in Transportation. November 18–20, 2004, Chicago, Illinois 2004. Transportation Research Board Conference Proceedings (2006)
Sathar, Z.A., Kazi, S.: Women’s autonomy in the context of rural Pakistan. Pak. Dev. Rev. 39(2), 89–110 (2000)
Sathar, Z.A., Kazi, S.: Women’s autonomy, livelihood and fertility: a study of rural Punjab. Institute of Development Studies, Islamabad, Pakistan (1997)
Singer, J.D., Willett, J.B.: Applied longitudinal data analysis: modeling change and event occurrence. Oxford University Press, Oxford (2003)
Tannen, D.: Gender and Discourse. Oxford University Press, New York (1994)
THE Urban UNIT: The Urban Dialogue - Talk on Urban Sustainable Development and Transport. Lahore, Pakistan (2008)
Transportation Research Board: Research on Women’s Issues in Transportation: Report of a Conference In: Women’s Issues in Transportation, Chicago, IL, November 18–20 (2004)
Urry, J.: Sociology beyond societies: Mobilities for the twenty-first century. Psychology Press, London (2000)
Zelinsky, W.: The hypothesis of the mobility transition. Geogr. Rev. 61(2), 219–249 (1971)