Co-morbid manifestations in COPD

Respiratory Medicine: COPD Update - Tập 3 - Trang 135-151 - 2007
Emiel F.M. Wouters1,2, Mieke P.M. Celis3, Marie K. Breyer4, Erica P.A. Rutten4, Lidwien Graat-Verboom5, Martijn A. Spruit4
1Department of Respiratory Medicine, University Hospital Maastricht, P.O. Box 5800, 6202 AZ Maastricht, The Netherlands
2Centre for Integrated Rehabilitation of Organ Failure (CIRO), Horn, The Netherlands
3Department of Respiratory Medicine, NUTRIM, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
4Department of Research, Development & Education, Centre for Integrated Rehabilitation of Organ failure (CIRO), Horn, The Netherlands
5Department of Respiratory Medicine, Catharina Hospital, Eindhoven, The Netherlands

Tài liệu tham khảo

Feenstra, 2001, The impact of aging and smoking on the future burden of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a model analysis in the Netherlands, Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 164, 590, 10.1164/ajrccm.164.4.2003167 Murray, 1997, Mortality by cause for eight regions of the world: global burden of disease study, Lancet, 349, 1269, 10.1016/S0140-6736(96)07493-4 Pauwels, 2001, Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. NHLBI/WHO Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD) Workshop summary, Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 163, 1256, 10.1164/ajrccm.163.5.2101039 Wouters, 2004, Management of severe COPD, Lancet, 364, 883, 10.1016/S0140-6736(04)16984-5 Agusti, 2005, COPD, a multicomponent disease: implications for management, Respir Med, 99, 670, 10.1016/j.rmed.2004.11.006 Steuten, 2006, COPD as a multicomponent disease: inventory of dyspnoea, underweight, obesity and fat free mass depletion in primary care, Prim Care Respir J, 15, 84, 10.1016/j.pcrj.2005.09.001 Rudolf, 2007, COPD and death: what exactly is the relationship?, Thorax, 62, 378, 10.1136/thx.2006.074435 McGarvey, 2007, Ascertainment of cause-specific mortality in COPD: operations of the TORCH Clinical Endpoint Committee, Thorax, 62, 411, 10.1136/thx.2006.072348 The health consequences of smoking: a report of the surgeon general. Atlanta: US Department of Health and Human Services. Centers for Disease and Control, 2004. Wouters, 2002, Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. 5: systemic effects of COPD, Thorax, 57, 1067, 10.1136/thorax.57.12.1067 Soriano, 2005, Patterns of comorbidities in newly diagnosed COPD and asthma in primary care, Chest, 128, 2099, 10.1378/chest.128.4.2099 Mapel, 2000, Health care utilization in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. A case–control study in a health maintenance organization, Arch Intern Med, 160, 2653, 10.1001/archinte.160.17.2653 Groenewegen, 2003, Mortality and mortality-related factors after hospitalization for acute exacerbation of COPD, Chest, 124, 459, 10.1378/chest.124.2.459 Almagro, 2002, Mortality after hospitalization for COPD, Chest, 121, 1441, 10.1378/chest.121.5.1441 Charlson, 1987, A new method of classifying prognostic comorbidity in longitudinal studies: development and validation, J Chronic Dis, 40, 373, 10.1016/0021-9681(87)90171-8 Holguin, 2005, Comorbidity and mortality in COPD-related hospitalizations in the United States, 1979–2001, Chest, 128, 2005, 10.1378/chest.128.4.2005 Anthonisen, 2002, Hospitalizations and mortality in the Lung Health Study, Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 166, 333, 10.1164/rccm.2110093 Berger, 2004, Effect of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease on survival of patients with coronary heart disease having percutaneous coronary intervention, Am J Cardiol, 94, 649, 10.1016/j.amjcard.2004.05.034 Sidney, 2005, COPD and incident cardiovascular disease hospitalizations and mortality: Kaiser Permanente Medical Care Program, Chest, 128, 2068, 10.1378/chest.128.4.2068 Sin, 2005, The relationship between reduced lung function and cardiovascular mortality: a population-based study and a systematic review of the literature, Chest, 127, 1952, 10.1378/chest.127.6.1952 Sorlie, 1989, Mortality associated with respiratory function and symptoms in advanced age. The Framingham Study, Am Rev Respir Dis, 140, 379, 10.1164/ajrccm/140.2.379 Ebi-Kryston, 1989, Breathlessness, chronic bronchitis and reduced pulmonary function as predictors of cardiovascular disease mortality among men in England, Scotland and the United States, Int J Epidemiol, 18, 84, 10.1093/ije/18.1.84 Truelsen, 2001, Lung function and risk of fatal and non-fatal stroke. The Copenhagen City Heart Study, Int J Epidemiol, 30, 145, 10.1093/ije/30.1.145 Stavem, 2005, Lung function, smoking and mortality in a 26-year follow-up of healthy middle-aged males, Eur Respir J, 25, 618, 10.1183/09031936.05.00008504 Hole, 1996, Impaired lung function and mortality risk in men and women: findings from the Renfrew and Paisley prospective population study, Br Med J, 313, 711, 10.1136/bmj.313.7059.711 Weber, 2004, Arterial stiffness, wave reflections, and the risk of coronary artery disease, Circulation, 109, 184, 10.1161/01.CIR.0000105767.94169.E3 Sabit, 2007, Arterial stiffness and osteoporosis in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 175, 1259, 10.1164/rccm.200701-067OC Zureik, 2001, Reduced pulmonary function is associated with central arterial stiffness in men, Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 164, 2181, 10.1164/ajrccm.164.12.2107137 Zureik, 2001, Association between peak expiratory flow and the development of carotid atherosclerotic plaques, Arch Intern Med, 161, 1669, 10.1001/archinte.161.13.1669 Danesh, 2000, Low grade inflammation and coronary heart disease: prospective study and updated meta-analyses, Br Med J, 321, 199, 10.1136/bmj.321.7255.199 Ross, 1999, Atherosclerosis—an inflammatory disease, N Engl J Med, 340, 115, 10.1056/NEJM199901143400207 Libby, 2002, Inflammation and atherosclerosis, Circulation, 105, 1135, 10.1161/hc0902.104353 Szmitko, 2003, New markers of inflammation and endothelial cell activation: Part I, Circulation, 108, 1917, 10.1161/01.CIR.0000089190.95415.9F Bonetti, 2003, Endothelial dysfunction: a marker of atherosclerotic risk, Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 23, 168, 10.1161/01.ATV.0000051384.43104.FC Epstein, 2004, Janus phenomenon: the interrelated tradeoffs inherent in therapies designed to enhance collateral formation and those designed to inhibit atherogenesis, Circulation, 109, 2826, 10.1161/01.CIR.0000132468.82942.F5 Lerman, 2005, Endothelial function: cardiac events, Circulation, 111, 363, 10.1161/01.CIR.0000153339.27064.14 Lopez, 2006, Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: current burden and future projections, Eur Respir J, 27, 397, 10.1183/09031936.06.00025805 Vallance, 2001, Endothelial function and nitric oxide: clinical relevance, Heart, 85, 342, 10.1136/heart.85.3.342 Deanfield, 2007, Endothelial function and dysfunction: testing and clinical relevance, Circulation, 115, 1285, 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.652859 Laroia, 2003, Endothelium and the lipid metabolism: the current understanding, Int J Cardiol, 88, 1, 10.1016/S0167-5273(02)00366-2 Rask-Madsen, 2007, Mechanisms of disease: endothelial dysfunction in insulin resistance and diabetes, Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab, 3, 46, 10.1038/ncpendmet0366 John, 2000, Impaired endothelial function in arterial hypertension and hypercholesterolemia: potential mechanisms and differences, J Hypertens, 18, 363, 10.1097/00004872-200018040-00002 Celermajer, 1996, Passive smoking and impaired endothelium-dependent arterial dilatation in healthy young adults, N Engl J Med, 334, 150, 10.1056/NEJM199601183340303 Papaharalambus, 2007, Basic mechanisms of oxidative stress and reactive oxygen species in cardiovascular injury, Trends Cardiovasc Med, 17, 48, 10.1016/j.tcm.2006.11.005 Langen, 2003, ROS in the local and systemic pathogenesis of COPD, Free Radic Biol Med, 35, 226, 10.1016/S0891-5849(03)00316-2 Gosker, 2005, Altered antioxidant status in peripheral skeletal muscle of patients with COPD, Respir Med, 99, 118, 10.1016/j.rmed.2004.05.018 Hansson, 2005, Inflammation, atherosclerosis, and coronary artery disease, N Engl J Med, 352, 1685, 10.1056/NEJMra043430 Jarvisalo, 2006, Assessment of inflammatory markers and endothelial function, Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care, 9, 547, 10.1097/01.mco.0000241663.00267.ae Hwang, 1997, Circulating adhesion molecules VCAM-1, ICAM-1, and E-selectin in carotid atherosclerosis and incident coronary heart disease cases: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study, Circulation, 96, 4219, 10.1161/01.CIR.96.12.4219 Zernecke, 2005, Inflammatory mediators in atherosclerotic vascular disease, Basic Res Cardiol, 100, 93, 10.1007/s00395-005-0511-6 Wehlin, 2005, Reduced intracellular oxygen radical production in whole blood leukocytes from COPD patients and asymptomatic smokers, Chest, 128, 2051, 10.1378/chest.128.4.2051 Aldonyte, 2004, Analysis of systemic biomarkers in COPD patients, COPD, 1, 155, 10.1081/COPD-120030828 Ridker, 2002, Comparison of C-reactive protein and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in the prediction of first cardiovascular events, N Engl J Med, 347, 1557, 10.1056/NEJMoa021993 Boekholdt, 2006, C-reactive protein levels and coronary artery disease incidence and mortality in apparently healthy men and women: the EPIC-Norfolk prospective population study 1993–2003, Atherosclerosis, 187, 415, 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2005.09.023 Verma, 2002, A self-fulfilling prophecy: C-reactive protein attenuates nitric oxide production and inhibits angiogenesis, Circulation, 106, 913, 10.1161/01.CIR.0000029802.88087.5E Singh, 2005, C-reactive protein decreases tissue plasminogen activator activity in human aortic endothelial cells: evidence that C-reactive protein is a procoagulant, Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 25, 2216, 10.1161/01.ATV.0000183718.62409.ea Venugopal, 2005, Effect of C-reactive protein on vascular cells: evidence for a proinflammatory, proatherogenic role, Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens, 14, 33, 10.1097/00041552-200501000-00006 Jialal, 2004, C-reactive protein: risk marker or mediator in atherothrombosis?, Hypertension, 44, 6, 10.1161/01.HYP.0000130484.20501.df Sin, 2003, Why are patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease at increased risk of cardiovascular diseases? The potential role of systemic inflammation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Circulation, 107, 1514, 10.1161/01.CIR.0000056767.69054.B3 Man, 2006, C-reactive protein and mortality in mild to moderate chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Thorax, 61, 849, 10.1136/thx.2006.059808 Wedzicha, 2000, Acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease are ccompanied by elevations of plasma fibrinogen and serum IL-6 levels, Thromb Haemost, 84, 210, 10.1055/s-0037-1613998 Seemungal, 2001, Respiratory viruses, symptoms, and inflammatory markers in acute exacerbations and stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 164, 1618, 10.1164/ajrccm.164.9.2105011 Danesh, 2005, Plasma fibrinogen level and the risk of major cardiovascular diseases and nonvascular mortality: an individual participant meta-analysis, J Am Med Assoc, 294, 1799 Kamath, 2003, Fibrinogen: biochemistry, epidemiology and determinants, Q J Med, 96, 711, 10.1093/qjmed/hcg129 Lijnen, 2001, Elements of the fibrinolytic system, Ann NY Acad Sci, 936, 226, 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2001.tb03511.x Ashitani, 2002, Elevated plasma procoagulant and fibrinolytic markers in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Intern Med, 41, 181, 10.2169/internalmedicine.41.181 Koenig, 2007, Biomarkers of atherosclerotic plaque instability and rupture, Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 27, 15, 10.1161/01.ATV.0000251503.35795.4f Tofler, 2002, Association between increased homocysteine levels and impaired fibrinolytic potential: potential mechanism for cardiovascular risk, Thromb Haemost, 88, 799, 10.1055/s-0037-1613305 Majors, 1997, Homocysteine as a risk factor for vascular disease. Enhanced collagen production and accumulation by smooth muscle cells, Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 17, 2074, 10.1161/01.ATV.17.10.2074 Abahji, 2007, Acute hyperhomocysteinemia induces microvascular and macrovascular endothelial dysfunction, Arch Med Res, 38, 411, 10.1016/j.arcmed.2007.01.004 Weiss, 2002, Endothelial dysfunction and atherothrombosis in mild hyperhomocysteinemia, Vasc Med, 7, 227, 10.1191/1358863x02vm428ra Lentz, 2003, Hyperhomocysteinemia, endothelial dysfunction, and cardiovascular risk: the potential role of ADMA, Atheroscler Suppl, 4, 61, 10.1016/S1567-5688(03)00035-7 Boger, 2006, Asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA): a novel risk marker in cardiovascular medicine and beyond, Ann Med, 38, 126, 10.1080/07853890500472151 Cooke, 2000, Does ADMA cause endothelial dysfunction?, Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 20, 2032, 10.1161/01.ATV.20.9.2032 Topal, 2004, Homocysteine induces oxidative stress by uncoupling of NO synthase activity through reduction of tetrahydrobiopterin, Free Radic Biol Med, 36, 1532, 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2004.03.019 Kai, 2006, The effect of smoking-related hyperhomocysteinemia on spirometric declines in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in elderly Japanese, Arch Gerontol Geriatr, 42, 117, 10.1016/j.archger.2005.06.003 Mach, 1997, Activation of monocyte/macrophage functions related to acute atheroma complication by ligation of CD40: induction of collagenase, stromelysin, and tissue factor, Circulation, 96, 396, 10.1161/01.CIR.96.2.396 Thienel, 1999, CD154 (CD40L) induces human endothelial cell chemokine production and migration of leukocyte subsets, Cell Immunol, 198, 87, 10.1006/cimm.1999.1583 Henn, 1998, CD40 ligand on activated platelets triggers an inflammatory reaction of endothelial cells, Nature, 391, 591, 10.1038/35393 Harding, 2004, Upregulation of the CD40/CD40 ligand dyad and platelet-monocyte aggregation in cigarette smokers, Circulation, 109, 1926, 10.1161/01.CIR.0000127128.52679.E4 Asahara, 1997, Isolation of putative progenitor endothelial cells for angiogenesis, Science, 275, 964, 10.1126/science.275.5302.964 Werner, 2006, Influence of cardiovascular risk factors on endothelial progenitor cells: limitations for therapy?, Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 26, 257, 10.1161/01.ATV.0000198239.41189.5d Hill, 2003, Circulating endothelial progenitor cells, vascular function, and cardiovascular risk, N Engl J Med, 348, 593, 10.1056/NEJMoa022287 Vasa, 2001, Number and migratory activity of circulating endothelial progenitor cells inversely correlate with risk factors for coronary artery disease, Circ Res, 89, E1, 10.1161/hh1301.093953 Schmidt-Lucke, 2005, Reduced number of circulating endothelial progenitor cells predicts future cardiovascular events: proof of concept for the clinical importance of endogenous vascular repair, Circulation, 111, 2981, 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.104.504340 Palange, 2006, Circulating haemopoietic and endothelial progenitor cells are decreased in COPD, Eur Respir J, 27, 529, 10.1183/09031936.06.00120604 Ronti, 2006, The endocrine function of adipose tissue: an update, Clin Endocrinol (Oxford), 64, 355 Fantuzzi, 2007, Adipose tissue and atherosclerosis: exploring the connection, Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 27, 996, 10.1161/ATVBAHA.106.131755 Fantuzzi, 2005, Adipose tissue, adipokines, and inflammation, J Allergy Clin Immunol, 115, 911, 10.1016/j.jaci.2005.02.023 Peelman, 2004, Leptin: linking adipocyte metabolism with cardiovascular and autoimmune diseases, Prog Lipid Res, 43, 283, 10.1016/j.plipres.2004.03.001 Considine, 1996, Serum immunoreactive-leptin concentrations in normal-weight and obese humans, N Engl J Med, 334, 292, 10.1056/NEJM199602013340503 Beltowski, 2006, Leptin and atherosclerosis, Atherosclerosis, 189, 47, 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2006.03.003 Sundell, 2003, High serum leptin is associated with attenuated coronary vasoreactivity, Obes Res, 11, 776, 10.1038/oby.2003.108 Piatti, 2003, Association of insulin resistance, hyperleptinemia, and impaired nitric oxide release with in-stent restenosis in patients undergoing coronary stenting, Circulation, 108, 2074, 10.1161/01.CIR.0000095272.67948.17 Wallace, 2001, Plasma leptin and the risk of cardiovascular disease in the west of Scotland coronary prevention study (WOSCOPS), Circulation, 104, 3052, 10.1161/hc5001.101061 Wolk, 2004, Plasma leptin and prognosis in patients with established coronary atherosclerosis, J Am Coll Cardiol, 44, 1819, 10.1016/j.jacc.2004.07.050 Soderberg, 2004, Leptin, but not adiponectin, predicts stroke in males, J Intern Med, 256, 128, 10.1111/j.1365-2796.2004.01351.x Singhal, 2002, Influence of leptin on arterial distensibility: a novel link between obesity and cardiovascular disease?, Circulation, 106, 1919, 10.1161/01.CIR.0000033219.24717.52 Glader, 2003, Lipoprotein(a), Chlamydia pneumoniae, leptin and tissue plasminogen activator as risk markers for valvular aortic stenosis, Eur Heart J, 24, 198, 10.1016/S0195-668X(02)00385-8 Sin, 2003, Impaired lung function and serum leptin in men and women with normal body weight: a population based study, Thorax, 58, 695, 10.1136/thorax.58.8.695 Lara-Castro, 2007, Adiponectin and the metabolic syndrome: mechanisms mediating risk for metabolic and cardiovascular disease, Curr Opin Lipidol, 18, 263, 10.1097/MOL.0b013e32814a645f Koenig, 2006, Serum concentrations of adiponectin and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus and coronary heart disease in apparently healthy middle-aged men: results from the 18-year follow-up of a large cohort from southern Germany, J Am Coll Cardiol, 48, 1369, 10.1016/j.jacc.2006.06.053 Spranger, 2003, Adiponectin and protection against type 2 diabetes mellitus, Lancet, 361, 226, 10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12255-6 Kantartzis, 2006, The relationships of plasma adiponectin with a favorable lipid profile, decreased inflammation, and less ectopic fat accumulation depend on adiposity, Clin Chem, 52, 1934, 10.1373/clinchem.2006.067397 Hopkins, 2007, Adiponectin actions in the cardiovascular system, Cardiovasc Res, 74, 11, 10.1016/j.cardiores.2006.10.009 Alessi, 2007, Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1, adipose tissue and insulin resistance, Curr Opin Lipidol, 18, 240, 10.1097/MOL.0b013e32814e6d29 Report USSG. the health consequences of smoking: a report of the surgeon general. Atlanta: US Department of health and human services. Centers for Disease and Control, 2004. http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/smokingconsequences. Jemal, 2007, Cancer Statistics, CA Cancer J Clin, 57, 43, 10.3322/canjclin.57.1.43 Peto R, 1994 Gottschall, 2002, Occupational and environmental thoracic malignancies, J Thorac Imaging, 17, 189, 10.1097/00005382-200207000-00003 Report USSG. The health consequences of smoking: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. US Department of Health and Human Services, Washington, DC, 1984. http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/NN/B/C/C/S/ Eberly, 2003, Pulmonary function as a predictor of lung cancer mortality in continuing cigarette smokers and in quitters, Int J Epidemiol, 32, 592, 10.1093/ije/dyg177 Lange, 1990, Ventilatory function and chronic mucus hypersecretion as predictors of death from lung cancer, Am Rev Respir Dis, 141, 613, 10.1164/ajrccm/141.3.613 Kuller, 1990, Relation of forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) to lung cancer mortality in the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial (MRFIT), Am J Epidemiol, 132, 265, 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a115656 Nomura, 1991, Prospective study of pulmonary function and lung cancer, Am Rev Respir Dis, 144, 307, 10.1164/ajrccm/144.2.307 Van den Eeden, 1992, Forced expiratory volume (1s) and lung cancer incidence and mortality, Epidemiology, 3, 253, 10.1097/00001648-199205000-00011 Islam, 1994, Declining FEV1 and chronic productive cough in cigarette smokers: a 25-year prospective study of lung cancer incidence in Tecumseh, Michigan, Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev, 3, 289 Anthonisen, 2005, The effects of a smoking cessation intervention on 14.5-year mortality: a randomized clinical trial, Ann Intern Med, 142, 233, 10.7326/0003-4819-142-4-200502150-00005 McGarvey, 2007, Ascertainment of cause-specific mortality in COPD: operations of the TORCH Clinical Endpoint Committee, Thorax, 62, 411, 10.1136/thx.2006.072348 Mannino, 2003, Low lung function and incident lung cancer in the United States: data From the First National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey follow-up, Arch Intern Med, 163, 1475, 10.1001/archinte.163.12.1475 Proctor, 2001, Tobacco and the global lung cancer epidemic, Nat Rev Cancer, 1, 82, 10.1038/35094091 Wasswa-Kintu, 2005, Relationship between reduced forced expiratory volume in one second and the risk of lung cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis, Thorax, 60, 570, 10.1136/thx.2004.037135 Mannino, 2002, Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease surveillance—United States, 1971–2000, MMWR Surveill Summ, 51, 1 Jemal, 2005, Cancer statistics, CA Cancer J Clin, 55, 10, 10.3322/canjclin.55.1.10 Prescott, 1997, Gender difference in smoking effects on lung function and risk of hospitalization for COPD: results from a Danish longitudinal population study, Eur Respir J, 10, 822, 10.1183/09031936.97.10040822 Bain, 2004, Lung cancer rates in men and women with comparable histories of smoking, J Natl Cancer Inst, 96, 826, 10.1093/jnci/djh143 Henschke, 2006, Women's susceptibility to tobacco carcinogens and survival after diagnosis of lung cancer, J Am Med Assoc, 296, 180, 10.1001/jama.296.2.180 Corrin, 2003 Risch, 1993, Are female smokers at higher risk for lung cancer than male smokers? A case–control analysis by histologic type, Am J Epidemiol, 138, 281, 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a116857 Zang, 1996, Differences in lung cancer risk between men and women: examination of the evidence, J Natl Cancer Inst, 88, 183, 10.1093/jnci/88.3-4.183 Osann, 1993, Sex differences in lung-cancer risk associated with cigarette smoking, Int J Cancer, 54, 44, 10.1002/ijc.2910540108 Thun, 2006, Lung cancer death rates in lifelong nonsmokers, J Natl Cancer Inst, 98, 691, 10.1093/jnci/djj187 Benowitz, 2006, Female sex and oral contraceptive use accelerate nicotine metabolism, Clin Pharmacol Ther, 79, 480, 10.1016/j.clpt.2006.01.008 Meibohm, 2002, How important are gender differences in pharmacokinetics?, Clin Pharmacokinet, 41, 329, 10.2165/00003088-200241050-00002 Kure, 1996, p53 mutations in lung tumours: relationship to gender and lung DNA adduct levels, Carcinogenesis, 17, 2201, 10.1093/carcin/17.10.2201 Niewoehner, 1974, Pathologic changes in the peripheral airways of young cigarette smokers, N Engl J Med, 291, 755, 10.1056/NEJM197410102911503 Danesh, 1998, Association of fibrinogen, C-reactive protein, albumin, or leukocyte count with coronary heart disease: meta-analyses of prospective studies, J Am Med Assoc, 279, 1477, 10.1001/jama.279.18.1477 Hurst, 2006, Systemic and upper and lower airway inflammation at exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 173, 71, 10.1164/rccm.200505-704OC Vernooy, 2002, Local and systemic inflammation in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: soluble tumor necrosis factor receptors are increased in sputum, Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 166, 1218, 10.1164/rccm.2202023 MacNee, 2000, Oxidants/antioxidants and COPD, Chest, 117, 303S, 10.1378/chest.117.5_suppl_1.303S-a Rahman, 1998, Role of transcription factors in inflammatory lung diseases, Thorax, 53, 601, 10.1136/thx.53.7.601 Di Stefano, 2002, Increased expression of nuclear factor-kappaB in bronchial biopsies from smokers and patients with COPD, Eur Respir J, 20, 556, 10.1183/09031936.02.00272002 Halliwell, 1996, Antioxidants in human health and disease, Annu Rev Nutr, 16, 33, 10.1146/annurev.nu.16.070196.000341 Komarova, 2005, p53 is a suppressor of inflammatory response in mice, FASEB J, 19, 1030, 10.1096/fj.04-3213fje Spira, 2004, Effects of cigarette smoke on the human airway epithelial cell transcriptome, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 101, 10143, 10.1073/pnas.0401422101 Rutgers, 2000, Ongoing airway inflammation in patients with COPD who Do not currently smoke, Chest, 117, 262S, 10.1378/chest.117.5_suppl_1.262S Cohen, 1978, Is pulmonary dysfunction the common denominator for the multiple effects of cigarette smoking?, Lancet, 2, 1024, 10.1016/S0140-6736(78)92342-5 Bauer, 2004, Susceptibility to neoplastic and non-neoplastic pulmonary diseases in mice: genetic similarities, Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol, 287, L685, 10.1152/ajplung.00223.2003 Hanahan, 2000, The hallmarks of cancer, Cell, 100, 57, 10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81683-9 Hogg, 2004, The nature of small-airway osbtruction in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, N Engl J Med, 350, 2645, 10.1056/NEJMoa032158 Beaufrere, 2000, Fat and protein redistribution with aging: metabolic considerations, Eur J Clin Nutr, 54, S48, 10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601025 Deschenes, 2004, Effects of aging on muscle fibre type and size, Sports Med, 34, 809, 10.2165/00007256-200434120-00002 Morse, 2005, Changes in triceps surae muscle architecture with sarcopenia, Acta Physiol Scand, 183, 291, 10.1111/j.1365-201X.2004.01404.x Volpi, 2004, Muscle tissue changes with aging, Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care, 7, 405, 10.1097/01.mco.0000134362.76653.b2 Schols, 1993, Prevalence and characteristics of nutritional depletion in patients with stable COPD eligible for pulmonary rehabilitation, Am Rev Respir Dis, 147, 1151, 10.1164/ajrccm/147.5.1151 Despres, 2006, Abdominal obesity and metabolic syndrome, Nature, 444, 881, 10.1038/nature05488 Baarends, 1997, Peak exercise response in relation to tissue depletion in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Eur Respir J, 10, 2807, 10.1183/09031936.97.10122807 Bernard, 1998, Peripheral muscle weakness in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 158, 629, 10.1164/ajrccm.158.2.9711023 Mostert, 2000, Tissue depletion and health related quality of life in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Respir Med, 94, 859, 10.1053/rmed.2000.0829 Palange, 1998, Effect of reduced body weight on muscle aerobic capacity in patients with COPD, Chest, 114, 12, 10.1378/chest.114.1.12 Schols, 2005, Body composition and mortality in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Am J Clin Nutr, 82, 53, 10.1093/ajcn/82.1.53 Vestbo, 2006, Clinical assessment, staging, and epidemiology of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbations, Proc Am Thorac Soc, 3, 252, 10.1513/pats.200510-107SF Marquis, 2002, Midthigh muscle cross-sectional area is a better predictor of mortality than body mass index in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 166, 809, 10.1164/rccm.2107031 Vestbo, 2006, Body mass, fat-free body mass, and prognosis in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease from a random population sample: findings from the Copenhagen City Heart Study, Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 173, 79 Vermeeren, 2006, Prevalence of nutritional depletion in a large out-patient population of patients with COPD, Respir Med, 100, 1349, 10.1016/j.rmed.2005.11.023 Gosker, 2003, Striking similarities in systemic factors contributing to decreased exercise capacity in patients with severe chronic heart failure or COPD, Chest, 123, 1416, 10.1378/chest.123.5.1416 Franssen, 2002, The contribution of starvation, deconditioning and ageing to the observed alterations in peripheral skeletal muscle in chronic organ diseases, Clin Nutr, 21, 1, 10.1054/clnu.2001.0485 Gosker, 2002, Skeletal muscle fibre-type shifting and metabolic profile in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Eur Respir J, 19, 617, 10.1183/09031936.02.00762001 Maltais, 2000, Oxidative enzyme activities of the vastus lateralis muscle and the functional status in patients with COPD, Thorax, 55, 848, 10.1136/thorax.55.10.848 Gosker, 2007, Muscle fibre type shifting in the vastus lateralis of patients with COPD is associated with disease severity: a systematic review and meta-analysis, Thorax, 10.1136/thx.2007.078980 Rutten, 2006, Greater whole-body myofibrillar protein breakdown in cachectic patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Am J Clin Nutr, 83, 829, 10.1093/ajcn/83.4.829 Hasselgren, 2001, Muscle cachexia: current concepts of intracellular mechanisms and molecular regulation, Ann Surg, 233, 9, 10.1097/00000658-200101000-00003 Langen, 2001, Inflammatory cytokines inhibit myogenic differentiation through activation of nuclear factor-kappaB, FASEB J, 15, 1169, 10.1096/fj.00-0463 Agusti, 2004, NF-kappaB activation and iNOS upregulation in skeletal muscle of patients with COPD and low body weight, Thorax, 59, 483, 10.1136/thx.2003.017640 Pouw, 1998, Plasma and muscle amino acid levels in relation to resting energy expenditure and inflammation in stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 158, 797, 10.1164/ajrccm.158.3.9708097 Spruit, 2003, Muscle force during an acute exacerbation in hospitalised patients with COPD and its relationship with CXCL8 and IGF-I, Thorax, 58, 752, 10.1136/thorax.58.9.752 Spruit, 2005, Low-grade systemic inflammation and the response to exercise training in patients with advanced COPD, Chest, 128, 3183, 10.1378/chest.128.5.3183 Takabatake, 2000, The relationship between chronic hypoxemia and activation of the tumor necrosis factor-alpha system in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 161, 1179, 10.1164/ajrccm.161.4.9903022 Bolton, 2007, Cellular protein breakdown and systemic inflammation are unaffected by pulmonary rehabilitation in COPD, Thorax, 62, 109, 10.1136/thx.2006.060368 Doucet, 2007, Muscle atrophy and hypertrophy signalling in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 10.1164/rccm.200605-704OC Engelen, 2000, Altered glutamate metabolism is associated with reduced muscle glutathione levels in patients with emphysema, Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 161, 98, 10.1164/ajrccm.161.1.9901031 Mercken, 2005, Rehabilitation decreases exercise-induced oxidative stress in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 172, 994, 10.1164/rccm.200411-1580OC Heunks, 1999, Xanthine oxidase is involved in exercise-induced oxidative stress in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Am J Physiol, 277, R1697 Van Helvoort, 2006, Exercise-induced systemic effects in muscle-wasted patients with COPD, Med Sci Sports Exerc, 38, 1543, 10.1249/01.mss.0000228331.13123.53 Couillard, 2005, From muscle disuse to myopathy in COPD: potential contribution of oxidative stress, Eur Respir J, 26, 703, 10.1183/09031936.05.00139904 Langen, 2004, Tumor necrosis factor-alpha inhibits myogenic differentiation through MyoD protein destabilization, FASEB J, 18, 227, 10.1096/fj.03-0251com Engelen, 2000, Factors contributing to alterations in skeletal muscle and plasma amino acid profiles in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Am J Clin Nutr, 72, 1480, 10.1093/ajcn/72.6.1480 Bohe, 2003, Human muscle protein synthesis is modulated by extracellular, not intramuscular amino acid availability: a dose–response study, J Physiol, 552, 315, 10.1113/jphysiol.2003.050674 Van Hall, 1999, Muscle protein degradation and amino acid metabolism during prolonged knee-extensor exercise in humans, Clin Sci (London), 97, 557, 10.1042/CS19980422 Marquis, 2005, The metabolic syndrome in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, J Cardiopulm Rehabil, 25, 226, 10.1097/00008483-200507000-00010 Leavitt, 2006, Long-term survival of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease undergoing coronary artery bypass surgery, Circulation, 114, I430, 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.000943 Chailleux, 2003, Prognostic value of nutritional depletion in patients with COPD treated by long-term oxygen therapy: data from the ANTADIR observatory, Chest, 123, 1460, 10.1378/chest.123.5.1460 Poulain, 2006, The effect of obesity on chronic respiratory diseases: pathophysiology and therapeutic strategies, Can Med Assoc J, 174, 1293, 10.1503/cmaj.051299 Johnston, 1993, Risk assessment: theoretical considerations, Am J Med, 95, 2S, 10.1016/0002-9343(93)90373-W Leech, 1990, Relationship of lung function to severity of osteoporosis in women, Am Rev Respir Dis, 141, 68, 10.1164/ajrccm/141.1.68 Ionescu, 2003, Osteoporosis in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Eur Respir J Suppl, 46, 64s, 10.1183/09031936.03.00004609 WHO. Prevention and management of osteoporosis. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/trs/WHO_TRS_921.pdf Marshall, 1996, Meta-analysis of how well measures of bone mineral density predict occurrence of osteoporotic fractures, Br Med J, 312, 1254, 10.1136/bmj.312.7041.1254 Biskobing, 2002, COPD and osteoporosis, Chest, 121, 609, 10.1378/chest.121.2.609 Engelen, 1998, Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry in the clinical evaluation of body composition and bone mineral density in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Am J Clin Nutr, 68, 1298, 10.1093/ajcn/68.6.1298 Bolton, 2004, Associated loss of fat-free mass and bone mineral density in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 170, 1286, 10.1164/rccm.200406-754OC Sin, 2003, The risk of osteoporosis in Caucasian men and women with obstructive airways disease, Am J Med, 114, 10, 10.1016/S0002-9343(02)01297-4 Dimai, 2001, Bone loss in patients with untreated chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is mediated by an increase in bone resorption associated with hypercapnia, J Bone Miner Res, 16, 2132, 10.1359/jbmr.2001.16.11.2132 Aloia, 1995, To what extent is bone mass determined by fat-free or fat mass?, Am J Clin Nutr, 61, 1110, 10.1093/ajcn/61.5.1110 Coin, 2000, Bone mineral density and body composition in underweight and normal elderly subjects, Osteoporos Int, 11, 1043, 10.1007/s001980070026 Iqbal, 1999, Declining bone mass in men with chronic pulmonary disease: contribution of glucocorticoid treatment, body mass index, and gonadal function, Chest, 116, 1616, 10.1378/chest.116.6.1616 Nishimura, 1997, Relationship between changes of bone mineral content and twelve-minute walking distance in men with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a longitudinal study, Intern Med, 36, 450, 10.2169/internalmedicine.36.450 Incalzi, 2000, Correlates of osteoporosis in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Respir Med, 94, 1079, 10.1053/rmed.2000.0916 Anker, 1999, Loss of bone mineral in patients with cachexia due to chronic heart failure, Am J Cardiol, 83, 612, 10.1016/S0002-9149(98)00927-8 Espat, 1995, Cytokine-mediated alterations in host metabolism prevent nutritional repletion in cachectic cancer patients, J Surg Oncol, 58, 77, 10.1002/jso.2930580202 Bertolini, 1986, Stimulation of bone resorption and inhibition of bone formation in vitro by human tumour necrosis factors, Nature, 319, 516, 10.1038/319516a0 Gowen, 1986, Actions of recombinant interleukin 1, interleukin 2, and interferon-gamma on bone resorption in vitro, J Immunol, 136, 2478, 10.4049/jimmunol.136.7.2478 Raisz, 1988, Local and systemic factors in the pathogenesis of osteoporosis, N Engl J Med, 318, 818, 10.1056/NEJM198803313181305 Manolagas, 1995, Bone marrow, cytokines, and bone remodeling. Emerging insights into the pathophysiology of osteoporosis, N Engl J Med, 332, 305, 10.1056/NEJM199502023320506 Neale, 2002, The influence of serum cytokines and growth factors on osteoclast formation in Paget's disease, Q J Med, 95, 233, 10.1093/qjmed/95.4.233 Simonet, 1997, Osteoprotegerin: a novel secreted protein involved in the regulation of bone density, Cell, 89, 309, 10.1016/S0092-8674(00)80209-3 Rogers, 2005, Circulating osteoprotegerin and receptor activator for nuclear factor kappaB ligand: clinical utility in metabolic bone disease assessment, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 90, 6323, 10.1210/jc.2005-0794 Fujikawa, 2001, The effect of macrophage-colony stimulating factor and other humoral factors (interleukin-1, -3, -6, and -11, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor) on human osteoclast formation from circulating cells, Bone, 28, 261, 10.1016/S8756-3282(00)00453-1 Quinn, 1998, Human osteoclast formation from blood monocytes, peritoneal macrophages, and bone marrow cells, Calcif Tissue Int, 62, 527, 10.1007/s002239900473 Matsuzaki, 1998, Osteoclast differentiation factor (ODF) induces osteoclast-like cell formation in human peripheral blood mononuclear cell cultures, Biochem Biophys Res Commun, 246, 199, 10.1006/bbrc.1998.8586 Burgess, 1999, The ligand for osteoprotegerin (OPGL) directly activates mature osteoclasts, J Cell Biol, 145, 527, 10.1083/jcb.145.3.527 Bekker, 2001, The effect of a single dose of osteoprotegerin in postmenopausal women, J Bone Miner Res, 16, 348, 10.1359/jbmr.2001.16.2.348 Fahrleitner-Pammer, 2003, Osteoprotegerin serum levels in women: correlation with age, bone mass, bone turnover and fracture status, Wien Klin Wochenschr, 115, 291, 10.1007/BF03040334 Jorgensen, 2004, Serum osteoprotegerin (OPG) and the A163G polymorphism in the OPG promoter region are related to peripheral measures of bone mass and fracture odds ratios, J Bone Miner Metab, 22, 132, 10.1007/s00774-003-0461-3 Browner, 2001, Associations of serum osteoprotegerin levels with diabetes, stroke, bone density, fractures, and mortality in elderly women, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 86, 631 Baxter, 2000, Insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-binding proteins: interactions with IGFs and intrinsic bioactivities, Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, 278, E967, 10.1152/ajpendo.2000.278.6.E967 Adams, 1998, Role of insulin-like growth factor-I in the regulation of skeletal muscle adaptation to increased loading, Exerc Sport Sci Rev, 26, 31, 10.1249/00003677-199800260-00004 Adams, 2002, Invited review: autocrine/paracrine IGF-I and skeletal muscle adaptation, J Appl Physiol, 93, 1159, 10.1152/japplphysiol.01264.2001 Casaburi, 2001, Skeletal muscle dysfunction in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Med Sci Sports Exerc, 33, S662, 10.1097/00005768-200107001-00004 Roubenoff, 2003, Cytokines, insulin-like growth factor 1, sarcopenia, and mortality in very old community-dwelling men and women: the Framingham Heart Study, Am J Med, 115, 429, 10.1016/j.amjmed.2003.05.001 Barbieri, 2003, Chronic inflammation and the effect of IGF-I on muscle strength and power in older persons, Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, 284, E481, 10.1152/ajpendo.00319.2002 Koehler, 2006, Anorexia in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease—Association to cachexia and hormonal derangement, Int J Cardiol Scalvini, 1996, Plasma hormone levels and haemodynamics in patients with chronic obstructive lung disease, Monaldi Arch Chest Dis, 51, 380 Debigare, 2003, Catabolic/anabolic balance and muscle wasting in patients with COPD, Chest, 124, 83, 10.1378/chest.124.1.83 Burdet, 1997, Administration of growth hormone to underweight patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. A prospective, randomized, controlled study, Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 156, 1800, 10.1164/ajrccm.156.6.9704142 Jankowska, 2006, Anabolic deficiency in men with chronic heart failure: prevalence and detrimental impact on survival, Circulation, 114, 1829, 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.649426 Petretta, 2007, NT-proBNP, IGF-I and survival in patients with chronic heart failure, Growth Horm IGF Res, 10.1016/j.ghir.2007.01.020 Pape, 1991, The effect of growth hormone on weight gain and pulmonary function in patients with chronic obstructive lung disease, Chest, 99, 1495, 10.1378/chest.99.6.1495 Suchner, 1990, Growth hormone and pulmonary disease. Metabolic effects in patients receiving parenteral nutrition, Arch Intern Med, 150, 1225, 10.1001/archinte.1990.00390180061010 Silvestri, 2005, Thyroid hormones as molecular determinants of thermogenesis, Acta Physiol Scand, 184, 265, 10.1111/j.1365-201X.2005.01463.x Okutan, 2004, Pulmonary function tests and thyroid hormone concentrations in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Med Princ Pract, 13, 126, 10.1159/000076950 Karadag, 2007, Correlates of non-thyroidal illness syndrome in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Respir Med, 10.1016/j.rmed.2007.01.016 Vermeeren, 1997, Effects of an acute exacerbation on nutritional and metabolic profile of patients with COPD, Eur Respir J, 10, 2264, 10.1183/09031936.97.10102264 Bank, 1998, Effects of short-term forearm exercise training on resistance vessel endothelial function in normal subjects and patients with heart failure, J Card Fail, 4, 193, 10.1016/S1071-9164(98)80006-7 Semple, 1981, Hypothalamic–pituitary dysfunction in respiratory hypoxia, Thorax, 36, 605, 10.1136/thx.36.8.605 Tremblay, 2005, Can we get away from serum total testosterone in the diagnosis of andropause?, Aging Male, 8, 147, 10.1080/13685530500088431 Van Vliet, 2005, Hypogonadism, quadriceps weakness, and exercise intolerance in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 172, 1105, 10.1164/rccm.200501-114OC Laghi, 2005, Respiratory and skeletal muscles in hypogonadal men with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 171, 598, 10.1164/rccm.200412-1643OC Casaburi, 2004, Effects of testosterone and resistance training in men with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 170, 870, 10.1164/rccm.200305-617OC Yardimci, 1997, Long-term effects of cigarette-smoke exposure on plasma testosterone, luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone levels in male rats, Br J Urol, 79, 66, 10.1046/j.1464-410X.1997.28314.x Semple, 1980, Serum testosterone depression associated with hypoxia in respiratory failure, Clin Sci (London), 58, 105, 10.1042/cs0580105 Kamischke, 1998, Testosterone levels in men with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease with or without glucocorticoid therapy, Eur Respir J, 11, 41, 10.1183/09031936.98.11010041 Creutzberg, 2003, Endocrinological disturbances in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Eur Respir J Suppl, 46, 76s, 10.1183/09031936.03.00004610 Laghi, 2005, Hypogonadism in men with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: prevalence and quality of life, Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 171, 728, 10.1164/rccm.200501-037OC