Neurovascular dysfunction and neurodegeneration in dementia and Alzheimer's disease

Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular Basis of Disease - Tập 1862 Số 5 - Trang 887-900 - 2016
Amy R. Nelson1, Melanie D. Sweeney1, Abhay P. Sagare1, Berislav V. Zloković1
1Department of Physiology and Biophysics and the Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA

Tóm tắt

Từ khóa


Tài liệu tham khảo

Zlokovic, 2011, Neurovascular pathways to neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's disease and other disorders, Nat. Rev. Neurosci., 12, 723, 10.1038/nrn3114

Iadecola, 2013, The pathobiology of vascular dementia, Neuron, 80, 844, 10.1016/j.neuron.2013.10.008

Moskowitz, 2010, The science of stroke: mechanisms in search of treatments, Neuron, 67, 181, 10.1016/j.neuron.2010.07.002

Zlokovic, 2008, The blood–brain barrier in health and chronic neurodegenerative disorders, Neuron, 57, 178, 10.1016/j.neuron.2008.01.003

Zhao, 2015, Establishment and dysfunction of the blood–brain barrier, Cell, 163, 1064, 10.1016/j.cell.2015.10.067

Mann, 1985, Evidence for a lactate transport system in the sarcolemmal membrane of the perfused rabbit heart: kinetics of unidirectional influx, carrier specificity and effects of glucagon, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 819, 241, 10.1016/0005-2736(85)90179-8

Zlokovic, 1985, Blood–brain barrier permeability to leucine-enkephalin, D-alanine2-D-leucine5-enkephalin and their N-terminal amino acid (tyrosine), Brain Res., 336, 125, 10.1016/0006-8993(85)90423-8

Zloković, 1987, Transport of leucine-enkephalin across the blood–brain barrier in the perfused guinea pig brain, J. Neurochem., 49, 310, 10.1111/j.1471-4159.1987.tb03431.x

Zlokovic, 1995, Cerebrovascular permeability to peptides: manipulations of transport systems at the blood–brain barrier, Pharm. Res., 12, 1395, 10.1023/A:1016254514167

Begley, 2003, Structural and functional aspects of the blood–brain barrier, Prog. Drug Res. Fortschr. Arzneimittelforsch. Prog. Rech. Pharm., 61, 39

Ramanathan, 2015, Impaired vascular-mediated clearance of brain amyloid beta in Alzheimer's disease: the role, regulation and restoration of LRP1, Front. Aging Neurosci., 7, 136, 10.3389/fnagi.2015.00136

Montagne, 2015, Blood–brain barrier breakdown in the aging human hippocampus, Neuron, 85, 296, 10.1016/j.neuron.2014.12.032

Montagne, 2015, Vascular plasticity and cognition during normal aging and dementia, JAMA Neurol., 10.1001/jamaneurol.2014.4636

Montine, 2014, Recommendations of the Alzheimer's disease-related dementias conference, Neurology, 83, 851, 10.1212/WNL.0000000000000733

Snyder, 2015, Vascular contributions to cognitive impairment and dementia including Alzheimer's disease, Alzheimers Dement. J. Alzheimers Assoc., 11, 710, 10.1016/j.jalz.2014.10.008

Sweeney, 2015, Cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers of neurovascular dysfunction in mild dementia and Alzheimer's disease, J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab., 35, 1055, 10.1038/jcbfm.2015.76

Winkler, 2013, Blood-spinal cord barrier breakdown and pericyte reductions in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Acta Neuropathol. (Berl.), 125, 111, 10.1007/s00401-012-1039-8

Korczyn, 2015, Vascular parkinsonism-characteristics, pathogenesis and treatment, Nat. Rev. Neurol., 11, 319, 10.1038/nrneurol.2015.61

Drouin-Ouellet, 2015, Cerebrovascular and blood–brain barrier impairments in Huntington's disease: potential implications for its pathophysiology, Ann. Neurol., 78, 160, 10.1002/ana.24406

Association, 2015, 2015 Alzheimer's disease facts and figures, Alzheimers Dement. J. Alzheimers Assoc., 11, 332, 10.1016/j.jalz.2015.02.003

Tanzi, 2012, The genetics of Alzheimer disease, Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med., 2, 10.1101/cshperspect.a006296

Winkler, 2014, The pericyte: a forgotten cell type with important implications for Alzheimer's disease?, Brain Pathol. Zurich Switz., 24, 371, 10.1111/bpa.12152

Sagare, 2013, Neurovascular defects and faulty amyloid-β vascular clearance in Alzheimer's disease, J. Alzheimers Dis. JAD, 33, S87

Sagare, 2012, Neurovascular dysfunction and faulty amyloid β-peptide clearance in Alzheimer disease, Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med., 2, 10.1101/cshperspect.a011452

Zlokovic, 2005, Neurovascular mechanisms of Alzheimer's neurodegeneration, Trends Neurosci., 28, 202, 10.1016/j.tins.2005.02.001

Huang, 2014, Apolipoprotein E: structure and function in lipid metabolism, neurobiology, and Alzheimer's diseases, Neurobiol. Dis., 72 Pt A, 3, 10.1016/j.nbd.2014.08.025

Corder, 1993, Gene dose of apolipoprotein E type 4 allele and the risk of Alzheimer's disease in late onset families, Science, 261, 921, 10.1126/science.8346443

Verghese, 2011, Apolipoprotein E in Alzheimer's disease and other neurological disorders, Lancet Neurol., 10, 241, 10.1016/S1474-4422(10)70325-2

Halliday, 2013, Relationship between cyclophilin a levels and matrix metalloproteinase 9 activity in cerebrospinal fluid of cognitively normal apolipoprotein e4 carriers and blood–brain barrier breakdown, JAMA Neurol., 70, 1198, 10.1001/jamaneurol.2013.3841

Halliday, 2015, Accelerated pericyte degeneration and blood–brain barrier breakdown in apolipoprotein E4 carriers with Alzheimer's disease, J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. Off. J. Int. Soc. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab.

Hultman, 2013, The APOE ɛ4/ɛ4 genotype potentiates vascular fibrin(ogen) deposition in amyloid-laden vessels in the brains of Alzheimer's disease patients, J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. Off. J. Int. Soc. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab., 33, 1251, 10.1038/jcbfm.2013.76

Zipser, 2007, Microvascular injury and blood–brain barrier leakage in Alzheimer's disease, Neurobiol. Aging, 28, 977, 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2006.05.016

Zonneveld, 2014, Prevalence of cortical superficial siderosis in a memory clinic population, Neurology, 82, 698, 10.1212/WNL.0000000000000150

Suri, 2015, Reduced cerebrovascular reactivity in young adults carrying the APOE ε4 allele, Alzheimers Dement. J. Alzheimers Assoc., 11, 648, 10.1016/j.jalz.2014.05.1755

Bell, 2012, Apolipoprotein E controls cerebrovascular integrity via cyclophilin A, Nature, 485, 512, 10.1038/nature11087

Alata, 2015, Human apolipoprotein E ɛ4 expression impairs cerebral vascularization and blood–brain barrier function in mice, J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. Off. J. Int. Soc. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab., 35, 86, 10.1038/jcbfm.2014.172

Bell, 2007, Transport pathways for clearance of human Alzheimer's amyloid beta-peptide and apolipoproteins E and J in the mouse central nervous system, J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. Off. J. Int. Soc. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab., 27, 909, 10.1038/sj.jcbfm.9600419

Deane, 2008, ApoE isoform-specific disruption of amyloid beta peptide clearance from mouse brain, J. Clin. Invest., 118, 4002, 10.1172/JCI36663

Miller, 2011, The molecular basis for the endocytosis of small R-SNAREs by the clathrin adaptor CALM, Cell, 147, 1118, 10.1016/j.cell.2011.10.038

Treusch, 2011, Functional links between Aβ toxicity, endocytic trafficking, and Alzheimer's disease risk factors in yeast, Science, 334, 1241, 10.1126/science.1213210

Zhao, 2015, Central role for PICALM in amyloid-β blood–brain barrier transcytosis and clearance, Nat. Neurosci., 18, 978, 10.1038/nn.4025

Harold, 2009, Genome-wide association study identifies variants at CLU and PICALM associated with Alzheimer's disease, Nat. Genet., 41, 1088, 10.1038/ng.440

Lambert, 2013, Meta-analysis of 74,046 individuals identifies 11 new susceptibility loci for Alzheimer's disease, Nat. Genet., 45, 1452, 10.1038/ng.2802

Lambert, 2009, Genome-wide association study identifies variants at CLU and CR1 associated with Alzheimer's disease, Nat. Genet., 41, 1094, 10.1038/ng.439

Lancaster, 2014, Alzheimer's disease risk variant in CLU is associated with neural inefficiency in healthy individuals, Alzheimers Dement. J. Alzheimers Assoc.

Zlokovic, 1996, Glycoprotein 330/megalin: probable role in receptor-mediated transport of apolipoprotein J alone and in a complex with Alzheimer disease amyloid beta at the blood–brain and blood-cerebrospinal fluid barriers, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 93, 4229, 10.1073/pnas.93.9.4229

Armstrong, 2008, Spatial correlations between beta-amyloid (Abeta) deposits and blood vessels in familial Alzheimer's disease, Folia Neuropathol. Assoc. Pol. Neuropathol. Med. Res. Cent. Pol. Acad. Sci., 46, 241

Niwa, 2013, Clinical and neuropathological findings in a patient with familial Alzheimer disease showing a mutation in the PSEN1 gene: familial Alzheimer disease with PSEN1, Neuropathology, 33, 199, 10.1111/j.1440-1789.2012.01340.x

Gama Sosa, 2010, Age-related vascular pathology in transgenic mice expressing presenilin 1-associated familial Alzheimer's disease mutations, Am. J. Pathol., 176, 353, 10.2353/ajpath.2010.090482

Wen, 2005, Selective expression of presenilin 1 in neural progenitor cells rescues the cerebral hemorrhages and cortical lamination defects in presenilin 1-null mutant mice, Dev. Camb. Engl., 132, 3873

Gorski, 2003, Control of vascular cell differentiation by homeobox transcription factors, Trends Cardiovasc. Med., 13, 213, 10.1016/S1050-1738(03)00081-1

Rovelet-Lecrux, 2012, Investigators of the GMAJ project; a genome-wide study reveals rare CNVs exclusive to extreme phenotypes of Alzheimer disease, Eur. J. Hum. Genet. EJHG, 20, 613, 10.1038/ejhg.2011.225

Wu, 2005, Role of the MEOX2 homeobox gene in neurovascular dysfunction in Alzheimer disease, Nat. Med., 11, 959, 10.1038/nm1287

Iadecola, 2008, Hypertension and cerebrovascular dysfunction, Cell Metab., 7, 476, 10.1016/j.cmet.2008.03.010

Toledo, 2013, Contribution of cerebrovascular disease in autopsy confirmed neurodegenerative disease cases in the National Alzheimer's Coordinating Centre, Brain J. Neurol., 136, 2697, 10.1093/brain/awt188

Wang, 1997, Chronic nicotine treatment enhances focal ischemic brain injury and depletes free pool of brain microvascular tissue plasminogen activator in rats, J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. Off. J. Int. Soc. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab., 17, 136, 10.1097/00004647-199702000-00002

Ruitenberg, 2005, Cerebral hypoperfusion and clinical onset of dementia: the Rotterdam Study, Ann. Neurol., 57, 789, 10.1002/ana.20493

Roher, 2012, Cerebral blood flow in Alzheimer's disease, Vasc. Health Risk Manag., 8, 599, 10.2147/VHRM.S34874

Paris, 2004, Impaired angiogenesis in a transgenic mouse model of cerebral amyloidosis, Neurosci. Lett., 366, 80, 10.1016/j.neulet.2004.05.017

Bell, 2010, Pericytes control key neurovascular functions and neuronal phenotype in the adult brain and during brain aging, Neuron, 68, 409, 10.1016/j.neuron.2010.09.043

Chow, 2007, Serum response factor and myocardin mediate arterial hypercontractility and cerebral blood flow dysregulation in Alzheimer's phenotype, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 104, 823, 10.1073/pnas.0608251104

Bell, 2009, SRF and myocardin regulate LRP-mediated amyloid-beta clearance in brain vascular cells, Nat. Cell Biol., 11, 143, 10.1038/ncb1819

Hill, 2015, Regional blood flow in the normal and ischemic brain is controlled by arteriolar smooth muscle cell contractility and not by capillary pericytes, Neuron, 87, 95, 10.1016/j.neuron.2015.06.001

Hall, 2014, Capillary pericytes regulate cerebral blood flow in health and disease, Nature, 508, 55, 10.1038/nature13165

Iadecola, 2004, Neurovascular regulation in the normal brain and in Alzheimer's disease, Nat. Rev. Neurosci., 5, 347, 10.1038/nrn1387

Sagare, 2015, Shedding of soluble platelet-derived growth factor receptor-β from human brain pericytes, Neurosci. Lett., 10.1016/j.neulet.2015.09.025

Bowman, 2012, Dyslipidemia and blood–brain barrier integrity in Alzheimer's disease, Curr. Gerontol. Geriatr. Res., 2012, 184042, 10.1155/2012/184042

Ryu, 2009, A leaky blood–brain barrier, fibrinogen infiltration and microglial reactivity in inflamed Alzheimer's disease brain, J. Cell. Mol. Med., 13, 2911, 10.1111/j.1582-4934.2008.00434.x

Sengillo, 2013, Deficiency in mural vascular cells coincides with blood–brain barrier disruption in Alzheimer's disease, Brain Pathol. Zurich Switz., 23, 303, 10.1111/bpa.12004

Akinyemi, 2013, Vascular risk factors and neurodegeneration in ageing related dementias: Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia, Curr. Alzheimer Res., 10, 642, 10.2174/15672050113109990037

Baloyannis, 2012, The vascular factor in Alzheimer's disease: a study in Golgi technique and electron microscopy, J. Neurol. Sci., 322, 117, 10.1016/j.jns.2012.07.010

Farkas, 2001, Cerebral microvascular pathology in aging and Alzheimer's disease, Prog. Neurobiol., 64, 575, 10.1016/S0301-0082(00)00068-X

Cortes-Canteli, 2015, Fibrin deposited in the Alzheimer's disease brain promotes neuronal degeneration, Neurobiol. Aging, 36, 608, 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2014.10.030

Yates, 2014, Incidence of cerebral microbleeds in preclinical Alzheimer disease, Neurology, 82, 1266, 10.1212/WNL.0000000000000285

Olazarán, 2014, Pattern of and risk factors for brain microbleeds in neurodegenerative dementia, Am. J. Alzheimers Dis. Other Demen., 29, 263, 10.1177/1533317513517043

Shams, 2015, Cerebral microbleeds: different prevalence, topography, and risk factors depending on dementia diagnosis—the Karolinska Imaging Dementia Study, AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol., 36, 661, 10.3174/ajnr.A4176

Raven, 2013, Increased iron levels and decreased tissue integrity in hippocampus of Alzheimer's disease detected in vivo with magnetic resonance imaging, J. Alzheimers Dis. JAD, 37, 127, 10.3233/JAD-130209

Horwood, 1994, Immunolabelling of hippocampal microvessel glucose transporter protein is reduced in Alzheimer's disease, Virchows Arch. Int. J. Pathol., 425, 69, 10.1007/BF00193951

Winkler, 2015, GLUT1 reductions exacerbate Alzheimer's disease vasculo-neuronal dysfunction and degeneration, Nat. Neurosci., 18, 521, 10.1038/nn.3966

Protas, 2013, Posterior cingulate glucose metabolism, hippocampal glucose metabolism, and hippocampal volume in cognitively normal, late-middle-aged persons at 3 levels of genetic risk for Alzheimer disease, JAMA Neurol., 70, 320, 10.1001/2013.jamaneurol.286

Mosconi, 2008, Hippocampal hypometabolism predicts cognitive decline from normal aging, Neurobiol. Aging, 29, 676, 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2006.12.008

Zeller, 1997, Distribution of Glut1 glucose transporters in different brain structures compared to glucose utilization and capillary density of adult rat brains, J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. Off. J. Int. Soc. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab., 17, 204, 10.1097/00004647-199702000-00010

Wang, 2000, Mutational analysis of GLUT1 (SLC2A1) in Glut-1 deficiency syndrome, Hum. Mutat., 16, 224, 10.1002/1098-1004(200009)16:3<224::AID-HUMU5>3.0.CO;2-P

Mawuenyega, 2010, Decreased clearance of CNS beta-amyloid in Alzheimer's disease, Science, 330, 1774, 10.1126/science.1197623

Deane, 2004, LRP/amyloid beta-peptide interaction mediates differential brain efflux of Abeta isoforms, Neuron, 43, 333, 10.1016/j.neuron.2004.07.017

Tarasoff-Conway, 2015, clearance systems in the brain-implications for Alzheimer disease, Nat. Rev. Neurol., 10.1038/nrneurol.2015.119

Zlokovic, 2010, Low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein-1: a serial clearance homeostatic mechanism controlling Alzheimer's amyloid β-peptide elimination from the brain, J. Neurochem., 115, 1077, 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2010.07002.x

Donahue, 2006, RAGE, LRP-1, and amyloid-beta protein in Alzheimer's disease, Acta Neuropathol. (Berl.), 112, 405, 10.1007/s00401-006-0115-3

Sagare, 2011, Impaired lipoprotein receptor-mediated peripheral binding of plasma amyloid-β is an early biomarker for mild cognitive impairment preceding Alzheimer's disease, J. Alzheimers Dis. JAD, 24, 25, 10.3233/JAD-2010-101248

Drake, 2003, Oxidative stress precedes fibrillar deposition of Alzheimer's disease amyloid beta-peptide (1–42) in a transgenic Caenorhabditis elegans model, Neurobiol. Aging, 24, 415, 10.1016/S0197-4580(02)00225-7

Deane, 2012, A multimodal RAGE-specific inhibitor reduces amyloid β-mediated brain disorder in a mouse model of Alzheimer disease, J. Clin. Invest., 122, 1377, 10.1172/JCI58642

Silverberg, 2010, Amyloid deposition and influx transporter expression at the blood–brain barrier increase in normal aging, J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol., 69, 98, 10.1097/NEN.0b013e3181c8ad2f

Yan, 1996, RAGE and amyloid-beta peptide neurotoxicity in Alzheimer's disease, Nature, 382, 685, 10.1038/382685a0

Smith, 2012, Cerebral microinfarcts: the invisible lesions, Lancet Neurol., 11, 272, 10.1016/S1474-4422(11)70307-6

Toledo, 2013, Contribution of cerebrovascular disease in autopsy confirmed neurodegenerative disease cases in the National Alzheimer's Coordinating Centre, Brain J. Neurol., 136, 2697, 10.1093/brain/awt188

Weller, 2009, Lymphatic drainage of the brain and the pathophysiology of neurological disease, Acta Neuropathol. (Berl.), 117, 1, 10.1007/s00401-008-0457-0

Xu, 2014, Cerebral microvascular rather than parenchymal amyloid-β protein pathology promotes early cognitive impairment in transgenic mice, J. Alzheimers Dis. JAD, 38, 621, 10.3233/JAD-130758

Morris, 2014, The cerebrovascular basement membrane: role in the clearance of β-amyloid and cerebral amyloid angiopathy, Front. Aging Neurosci., 6, 251, 10.3389/fnagi.2014.00251

Brown, 2010, A review of string vessels or collapsed, empty basement membrane tubes, J. Alzheimers Dis. JAD, 21, 725, 10.3233/JAD-2010-100219

Hunter, 2012, Morphological and pathological evolution of the brain microcirculation in aging and Alzheimer's disease, PLoS One, 7, 10.1371/journal.pone.0036893

Richard, 2010, Morphometric changes in the cortical microvascular network in Alzheimer's disease, J. Alzheimers Dis. JAD, 22, 811, 10.3233/JAD-2010-100849

Xu, 2015, Meta-analysis of modifiable risk factors for Alzheimer's disease, J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, 10.1136/jnnp-2015-310548

Freitag, 2006, Midlife pulse pressure and incidence of dementia: the Honolulu-Asia Aging Study, Stroke J. Cereb. Circ., 37, 33, 10.1161/01.STR.0000196941.58869.2d

Shah, 2012, Midlife blood pressure, plasma β-amyloid, and the risk for Alzheimer disease: the Honolulu Asia Aging Study, Hypertension, 59, 780, 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.111.178962

Sharp, 2011, Alzheimer's Society Vascular Dementia Systematic Review Group, C. Ballard, Hypertension is a potential risk factor for vascular dementia: systematic review, Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry, 26, 661, 10.1002/gps.2572

Scuteri, 2011, Microvascular brain damage with aging and hypertension: pathophysiological consideration and clinical implications, J. Hypertens., 29, 1469, 10.1097/HJH.0b013e328347cc17

Uiterwijk, 2015, Endothelial activation is associated with cognitive performance in patients with hypertension, Am. J. Hypertens.

Droste, 2003, Arterial hypertension and ischaemic stroke, Acta Neurol. Scand., 107, 241, 10.1034/j.1600-0404.2003.00098.x

Ueno, 2004, Blood–brain barrier is impaired in the hippocampus of young adult spontaneously hypertensive rats, Acta Neuropathol. (Berl.), 107, 532, 10.1007/s00401-004-0845-z

Carnevale, 2012, Hypertension induces brain β-amyloid accumulation, cognitive impairment, and memory deterioration through activation of receptor for advanced glycation end products in brain vasculature, Hypertension, 60, 188, 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.112.195511

Faraco, 2015, Hypertension enhances aβ-induced neurovascular dysfunction, promotes β-secretase activity, and leads to amyloidogenic processing of APP, J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. Off. J. Int. Soc. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab.

Kruyer, 2015, Chronic hypertension leads to neurodegeneration in the TgSwDI mouse model of Alzheimer's disease, Hypertension, 66, 175, 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.115.05524

Rosei, 2005, CENTRO (CandEsartaN on aTherosclerotic Risk factors) study investigators; effects of candesartan cilexetil and enalapril on inflammatory markers of atherosclerosis in hypertensive patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, J. Hypertens., 23, 435, 10.1097/00004872-200502000-00027

Akter, 2015, Higher circulatory level of endothelin-1 in hypertensive subjects screened through a cross-sectional study of rural Bangladeshi women, Hypertens. Res. Off. J. Jpn. Soc. Hypertens., 38, 208, 10.1038/hr.2014.160

Nagai, 2010, Hypertension and dementia, Am. J. Hypertens., 23, 116, 10.1038/ajh.2009.212

Larson, 2013, New insights into the dementia epidemic, N. Engl. J. Med., 369, 2275, 10.1056/NEJMp1311405

Profenno, 2010, Meta-analysis of Alzheimer's disease risk with obesity, diabetes, and related disorders, Biol. Psychiatry, 67, 505, 10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.02.013

Cheng, 2012, Diabetes as a risk factor for dementia and mild cognitive impairment: a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies, Intern. Med. J., 42, 484, 10.1111/j.1445-5994.2012.02758.x

Barbagallo, 2014, Type 2 diabetes mellitus and Alzheimer's disease, World J. Diabetes, 5, 889, 10.4239/wjd.v5.i6.889

Starr, 2003, Increased blood–brain barrier permeability in type II diabetes demonstrated by gadolinium magnetic resonance imaging, J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, 74, 70, 10.1136/jnnp.74.1.70

Mogi, 2011, Neurovascular coupling in cognitive impairment associated with diabetes mellitus, Circ. J. Off. J. Jpn. Circ. Soc., 75, 1042

Huber, 2006, Streptozotocin-induced diabetes progressively increases blood–brain barrier permeability in specific brain regions in rats, Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol., 291, H2660, 10.1152/ajpheart.00489.2006

Hawkins, 2007, Increased blood–brain barrier permeability and altered tight junctions in experimental diabetes in the rat: contribution of hyperglycaemia and matrix metalloproteinases, Diabetologia, 50, 202, 10.1007/s00125-006-0485-z

Takeda, 2010, Diabetes-accelerated memory dysfunction via cerebrovascular inflammation and Abeta deposition in an Alzheimer mouse model with diabetes, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 107, 7036, 10.1073/pnas.1000645107

Ramos-Rodriguez, 2015, Increased spontaneous central bleeding and cognition impairment in APP/PS1 mice with poorly controlled diabetes mellitus, Mol. Neurobiol.

Jayaraman, 2014, Alzheimer's disease and type 2 diabetes: multiple mechanisms contribute to interactions, Curr. Diab. Rep., 14, 476, 10.1007/s11892-014-0476-2

De Felice, 2015, Brain metabolic stress and neuroinflammation at the basis of cognitive impairment in Alzheimer's disease, Front. Aging Neurosci., 7, 94, 10.3389/fnagi.2015.00094

Gupta, 2015, Impaired Aβ clearance: a potential link between atherosclerosis and Alzheimer's disease, Front. Aging Neurosci., 7, 115, 10.3389/fnagi.2015.00115

Yarchoan, 2012, Cerebrovascular atherosclerosis correlates with Alzheimer pathology in neurodegenerative dementias, Brain J. Neurol., 135, 3749, 10.1093/brain/aws271

Frazier, 2014, The role of carotid intima-media thickness in predicting longitudinal cognitive function in an older adult cohort, Cerebrovasc. Dis. Basel Switz., 38, 441, 10.1159/000366469

Arntzen, 2012, Carotid atherosclerosis predicts lower cognitive test results: a 7-year follow-up study of 4371 stroke-free subjects—the Tromsø study, Cerebrovasc. Dis. Basel Switz., 33, 159, 10.1159/000334182

Zhong, 2012, Carotid atherosclerosis and 10-year changes in cognitive function, Atherosclerosis, 224, 506, 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2012.07.024

Bots, 1997, Homocysteine, atherosclerosis and prevalent cardiovascular disease in the elderly: the Rotterdam Study, J. Intern. Med., 242, 339, 10.1046/j.1365-2796.1997.00239.x

McIlroy, 2002, Moderately elevated plasma homocysteine, methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase genotype, and risk for stroke, vascular dementia, and Alzheimer disease in Northern Ireland, Stroke J. Cereb. Circ., 33, 2351, 10.1161/01.STR.0000032550.90046.38

Hassan, 2004, Homocysteine is a risk factor for cerebral small vessel disease, acting via endothelial dysfunction, Brain J. Neurol., 127, 212, 10.1093/brain/awh023

Miwa, 2015, Increased total homocysteine levels predict the risk of incident dementia independent of cerebral small-vessel diseases and vascular risk factors, J. Alzheimers Dis. JAD, 10.3233/JAD-150458

Kamat, 2015, Hydrogen sulfide ameliorates homocysteine-induced Alzheimer's disease-like pathology, blood–brain barrier disruption, and synaptic disorder, Mol. Neurobiol.

Zhuo, 2011, Is hyperhomocysteinemia an Alzheimer's disease (AD) risk factor, an AD marker, or neither?, Trends Pharmacol. Sci., 32, 562, 10.1016/j.tips.2011.05.003

Sudduth, 2013, Induction of hyperhomocysteinemia models vascular dementia by induction of cerebral microhemorrhages and neuroinflammation, J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. Off. J. Int. Soc. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab., 33, 708, 10.1038/jcbfm.2013.1

Sudduth, 2014, β-amyloid deposition is shifted to the vasculature and memory impairment is exacerbated when hyperhomocysteinemia is induced in APP/PS1 transgenic mice, Alzheimers Res. Ther., 6, 32, 10.1186/alzrt262

Franzblau, 2013, Vascular damage: a persisting pathology common to Alzheimer's disease and traumatic brain injury, Med. Hypotheses, 81, 842, 10.1016/j.mehy.2013.09.012

Glushakova, 2014, Delayed increases in microvascular pathology after experimental traumatic brain injury are associated with prolonged inflammation, blood–brain barrier disruption, and progressive white matter damage, J. Neurotrauma, 31, 1180, 10.1089/neu.2013.3080

Ju, 2014, Sleep and Alzheimer disease pathology–a bidirectional relationship, Nat. Rev. Neurol., 10, 115, 10.1038/nrneurol.2013.269

Peter-Derex, 2015, Sleep and Alzheimer's disease, Sleep Med. Rev., 19, 29, 10.1016/j.smrv.2014.03.007

Xie, 2013, Sleep drives metabolite clearance from the adult brain, Science, 342, 373, 10.1126/science.1241224

Pan, 2014, Can sleep apnea cause Alzheimer's disease?, Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 47, 656, 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.10.019

He, 2014, Sleep restriction impairs blood–brain barrier function, J. Neurosci., 34, 14697, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2111-14.2014

Sharma, 2015, Sleep deprivation-induced blood–brain barrier breakdown and brain dysfunction are exacerbated by size-related exposure to Ag and Cu nanoparticles neuroprotective effects of a 5-HT3 receptor antagonist ondansetron, Mol. Neurobiol., 10.1007/s12035-015-9236-9

Calderón-Garcidueñas, 2013, Early Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease pathology in urban children: friend versus foe responses–it is time to face the evidence, BioMed Res. Int., 2013, 161687, 10.1155/2013/161687

Jung, 2015, Ozone, particulate matter, and newly diagnosed Alzheimer's disease: a population-based cohort study in Taiwan, J. Alzheimers Dis. JAD, 44, 573, 10.3233/JAD-140855

Calderón-Garcidueñas, 2012, Neuroinflammation, hyperphosphorylated tau, diffuse amyloid plaques, and down-regulation of the cellular prion protein in air pollution exposed children and young adults, J. Alzheimers Dis. JAD, 28, 93, 10.3233/JAD-2011-110722

Calderón-Garcidueñas, 2015, decreases in short term memory, IQ, and altered brain metabolic ratios in urban apolipoprotein ε4 children exposed to air pollution, J. Alzheimers Dis. JAD, 45, 757, 10.3233/JAD-142685

Calderón-Garcidueñas, 2015, Air pollution and children: neural and tight junction antibodies and combustion metals, the role of barrier breakdown and brain immunity in neurodegeneration, J. Alzheimers Dis. JAD, 43, 1039, 10.3233/JAD-141365

Kim, 2012, 1, 70

Oppenheim, 2013, Exposure to vehicle emissions results in altered blood brain barrier permeability and expression of matrix metalloproteinases and tight junction proteins in mice, Part. Fibre Toxicol., 10, 62, 10.1186/1743-8977-10-62

Yang, 2010, A review of nanoparticle functionality and toxicity on the central nervous system, J. R. Soc. Interface, 7, S411, 10.1098/rsif.2010.0158.focus

Sharma, 2010, Influence of nanoparticles on blood–brain barrier permeability and brain edema formation in rats, Acta Neurochir. Suppl., 106, 359, 10.1007/978-3-211-98811-4_65

Sharma, 2010, J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol., 10, 7931, 10.1166/jnn.2010.3616

Tang, 2009, Distribution, translocation and accumulation of silver nanoparticles in rats, J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol., 9, 4924, 10.1166/jnn.2009.1269

Li, 2015, Gold nanoparticles increase endothelial paracellular permeability by altering components of endothelial tight junctions, and increase blood–brain barrier permeability in mice, Toxicol. Sci. Off. J. Soc. Toxicol., 10.1093/toxsci/kfv176

Takeda, 2014, Systemic inflammation, blood–brain barrier vulnerability and cognitive/non-cognitive symptoms in Alzheimer disease: relevance to pathogenesis and therapy, Front. Aging Neurosci., 6, 171, 10.3389/fnagi.2014.00171

Dunn, 2005, Association between dementia and infectious disease: evidence from a case–control study, Alzheimer Dis. Assoc. Disord., 19, 91, 10.1097/01.wad.0000165511.52746.1f

Garth, 2009, Role of chronic bacterial and viral infections in neurodegenerative, Neurobehavioral, Psychiatric, Autoimmune and Fatiguing Illnesses: Part, 1, 20

Lin, 1996, Neurotropic viruses and Alzheimer disease Interaction of herpes simplex type 1 virus and apolipoprotein E in the etiology of the disease, Mol. Chem. Neuropathol. Spons. Int. Soc. Neurochem. World Fed. Neurol. Res. Groups Neurochem. Cerebrospinal Fluid, 28, 135

Foley, 2015, A systematic review and meta-analysis examining pneumonia-associated mortality in dementia, Dement. Geriatr. Cogn. Disord., 39, 52, 10.1159/000367783

Bircan, 2015, Elevated serum matrix metalloproteinase-2 and -9 and their correlations with severity of disease in patients with community-acquired pneumonia, Turk. J. Med. Sci., 45, 593, 10.3906/sag-1402-51

Singhrao, 2014, Oral inflammation, tooth loss, risk factors, and association with progression of Alzheimer's disease, J. Alzheimers Dis. JAD, 42, 723, 10.3233/JAD-140387

Pisa, 2015, Direct visualization of fungal infection in brains from patients with Alzheimer's disease, J. Alzheimers Dis. JAD, 43, 613, 10.3233/JAD-141386

Pisa, 2015, Different brain regions are infected with fungi in Alzheimer's disease, Sci. Rep., 5, 15015, 10.1038/srep15015

Haorah, 2008, Activation of protein tyrosine kinases and matrix metalloproteinases causes blood–brain barrier injury: novel mechanism for neurodegeneration associated with alcohol abuse, Glia, 56, 78, 10.1002/glia.20596

Haorah, 2005, Alcohol-induced oxidative stress in brain endothelial cells causes blood–brain barrier dysfunction, J. Leukoc. Biol., 78, 1223, 10.1189/jlb.0605340

Kousik, 2012, The effects of psychostimulant drugs on blood brain barrier function and neuroinflammation, Front. Pharmacol., 3, 10.3389/fphar.2012.00121

Northrop, 2015, Methamphetamine effects on blood–brain barrier structure and function, Front. Neurosci., 9, 69, 10.3389/fnins.2015.00069

McConnell, 2015, Characterization of binge-dosed methamphetamine-induced neurotoxicity and neuroinflammation, Neurotoxicology, 10.1016/j.neuro.2015.08.006

Polesskaya, 2011, Methamphetamine causes sustained depression in cerebral blood flow, Brain Res., 1373, 91, 10.1016/j.brainres.2010.12.017

Yin, 2013, Microvascular damage is involved in the pathogenesis of heroin induced spongiform leukoencephalopathy, Int. J. Med. Sci., 10, 299, 10.7150/ijms.4830

Wollman, 2015, White matter abnormalities in long-term heroin users: a preliminary neuroimaging meta-analysis, Am. J. Drug Alcohol Abuse, 41, 133, 10.3109/00952990.2014.985829

Chen, 2009, Molecular signatures of disease brain endothelia provide new sites for CNS-directed enzyme therapy, Nat. Med., 15, 1215, 10.1038/nm.2025

Geoghegan, 2014, Chondroitin sulfate is the primary receptor for a peptide-modified AAV that targets brain vascular endothelium in vivo, Mol. Ther. Nucleic Acids, 3, 10.1038/mtna.2014.50

Sagare, 2007, Clearance of amyloid-beta by circulating lipoprotein receptors, Nat. Med., 13, 1029, 10.1038/nm1635

Sagare, 2013, A lipoprotein receptor cluster IV mutant preferentially binds amyloid-β and regulates its clearance from the mouse brain, J. Biolumin. Chemilumin., 288, 15154

Choeiri, 2005, Glucose transporter plasticity during memory processing, Neuroscience, 130, 591, 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2004.09.011

Kalaria, 1989, Reduced glucose transporter at the blood–brain barrier and in cerebral cortex in Alzheimer disease, J. Neurochem., 53, 1083, 10.1111/j.1471-4159.1989.tb07399.x

Shang, 2014, Ginsenoside Rb1 upregulates expressions of GLUTs to promote glucose consumption in adiopcytes, China J. Chin. Mater. Medica, 39, 4448

Gschanes, 2000, The drug cerebrolysin and its peptide fraction E021 increase the abundance of the blood–brain barrier GLUT1 glucose transporter in brains of young and old rats, Histochem. J., 32, 71, 10.1023/A:1004003008683

Galasko, 2014, F. the A.D.C. Study, Clinical trial of an inhibitor of RAGE-Aβ interactions in Alzheimer disease, Neurology, 82, 1536, 10.1212/WNL.0000000000000364

Burstein, 2014, Effect of TTP488 in patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease, BMC Neurol., 14, 12, 10.1186/1471-2377-14-12

Zlokovic, 2011, Cytoprotective protein C pathways and implications for stroke and neurological disorders, Trends Neurosci., 34, 198, 10.1016/j.tins.2011.01.005

Griffin, 2015, Activated protein C: biased for translation, Blood, 125, 2898, 10.1182/blood-2015-02-355974

Thiyagarajan, 2008, Activated protein C promotes neovascularization and neurogenesis in postischemic brain via protease-activated receptor 1, J. Neurosci., 28, 12788, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3485-08.2008

Guo, 2013, An activated protein C analog stimulates neuronal production by human neural progenitor cells via a PAR1-PAR3-S1PR1-Akt pathway, J. Neurosci., 33, 6181, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4491-12.2013

Cheng, 2003, Activated protein C blocks p53-mediated apoptosis in ischemic human brain endothelium and is neuroprotective, Nat. Med., 9, 338, 10.1038/nm826

Cheng, 2006, Activated protein C inhibits tissue plasminogen activator-induced brain hemorrhage, Nat. Med., 12, 1278, 10.1038/nm1498

Winkler, 2014, Blood-spinal cord barrier disruption contributes to early motor-neuron degeneration in ALS-model mice, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 111, E1035, 10.1073/pnas.1401595111

Williams, 2012, Preclinical safety and pharmacokinetic profile of 3K3A-APC, a novel, modified activated protein C for ischemic stroke, Curr. Pharm. Des., 18, 4215, 10.2174/138161212802430413

Lyden, 2013, Phase 1 safety, tolerability and pharmacokinetics of 3K3A-APC in healthy adult volunteers, Curr. Pharm. Des., 19, 7479, 10.2174/1381612819666131230131454

Gallay, 2015, The novel cyclophilin inhibitor CPI-431-32 concurrently blocks HCV and HIV-1 infections via a similar mechanism of action, PLoS One, 10, 10.1371/journal.pone.0134707

Yan, 2015, Discovery of novel small molecule anti-HCV agents via the CypA inhibitory mechanism using O-acylation-directed lead optimization, Mol. Basel Switz., 20, 10342

Hopkins, 2012, The cyclophilin inhibitor SCY-635 disrupts hepatitis C virus NS5A-cyclophilin A complexes, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 56, 3888, 10.1128/AAC.00693-12

Heinzmann, 2015, The novel extracellular cyclophilin A (CyPA)–inhibitor MM284 reduces myocardial inflammation and remodeling in a mouse model of troponin I–induced myocarditis, PLoS One, 10, 10.1371/journal.pone.0124606

Yan, 2015, Minocycline reduces spontaneous hemorrhage in mouse models of cerebral amyloid angiopathy, Stroke J. Cereb. Circ., 46, 1633, 10.1161/STROKEAHA.115.008582

Kundu, 2011, Curcumin alleviates matrix metalloproteinase-3 and -9 activities during eradication of Helicobacter pylori infection in cultured cells and mice, PLoS One, 6, 10.1371/journal.pone.0016306

Lee, 2015, Water-soluble MMP-9 inhibitor reduces lesion volume after severe traumatic brain injury, ACS Chem. Neurosci., 10.1021/acschemneuro.5b00140

Kawatani, 2015, Identification of matrix metalloproteinase inhibitors by chemical arrays, Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem., 79, 1597, 10.1080/09168451.2015.1045829

Yang, 2015, Attenuation of acute stroke injury in rat brain by minocycline promotes blood–brain barrier remodeling and alternative microglia/macrophage activation during recovery, J. Neuroinflammation, 12, 26, 10.1186/s12974-015-0245-4

Yang, 2015, Minocycline ameliorates hypoxia-induced blood–brain barrier damage by inhibition of HIF-1α through SIRT-3/PHD-2 degradation pathway, Neuroscience, 304, 250, 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.07.051

Ando, 2004, Angiotensin II AT1 receptor blockade reverses pathological hypertrophy and inflammation in brain microvessels of spontaneously hypertensive rats, Stroke J. Cereb. Circ., 35, 1726, 10.1161/01.STR.0000129788.26346.18

Liu, 2015, Protective effect of telmisartan on neurovascular unit and inflammasome in stroke-resistant spontaneously hypertensive rats, Neurol. Res., 37, 491, 10.1179/1743132815Y.0000000002

Wang, 2007, Valsartan lowers brain beta-amyloid protein levels and improves spatial learning in a mouse model of Alzheimer disease, J. Clin. Invest., 117, 3393, 10.1172/JCI31547

Hajjar, 2012, Impact of angiotensin receptor blockers on Alzheimer disease neuropathology in a large brain autopsy series, Arch. Neurol., 69, 1632, 10.1001/archneurol.2012.1010

Schneider, 2011, Antihypertensive therapy is associated with reduced rate of conversion to Alzheimer's disease in midregional proatrial natriuretic peptide stratified subjects with mild cognitive impairment, Biol. Psychiatry, 70, 145, 10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.01.036

Liu, 2011, Ancrod and fibrin formation: perspectives on mechanisms of action, Stroke J. Cereb. Circ., 42, 3277, 10.1161/STROKEAHA.111.622753

Akassoglou, 2004, Fibrin depletion decreases inflammation and delays the onset of demyelination in a tumor necrosis factor transgenic mouse model for multiple sclerosis, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 101, 6698, 10.1073/pnas.0303859101

Sherman, 2000, Intravenous ancrod for treatment of acute ischemic stroke: the STAT study: a randomized controlled trial Stroke Treatment with Ancrod Trial, JAMA, 283, 2395, 10.1001/jama.283.18.2395

Levy, 2009, Ancrod in acute ischemic stroke: results of 500 subjects beginning treatment within 6hours of stroke onset in the ancrod stroke program, Stroke J. Cereb. Circ., 40, 3796, 10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.565119

Brickman, 2014, Enhancing dentate gyrus function with dietary flavanols improves cognition in older adults, Nat. Neurosci., 17, 1798, 10.1038/nn.3850

Morris, 2015, MIND diet slows cognitive decline with aging, Alzheimers Dement. J. Alzheimers Assoc., 10.1016/j.jalz.2015.04.011

Hsu, 2014, Blood–brain barrier disruption: mechanistic links between Western diet consumption and dementia, Front. Aging Neurosci., 6, 88, 10.3389/fnagi.2014.00088

Kanoski, 2010, The effects of a high-energy diet on hippocampal function and blood–brain barrier integrity in the rat, J. Alzheimers Dis. JAD, 21, 207, 10.3233/JAD-2010-091414

Takechi, 2013, Aging-related changes in blood–brain barrier integrity and the effect of dietary fat, Neurodegener. Dis., 12, 125, 10.1159/000343211

Takechi, 2013, Probucol prevents blood–brain barrier dysfunction in wild-type mice induced by saturated fat or cholesterol feeding, Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol., 40, 45, 10.1111/1440-1681.12032

Saeed, 2014, Effects of a disrupted blood–brain barrier on cholesterol homeostasis in the brain, J. Biolumin. Chemilumin., 289, 23712

Popp, 2012, Cholesterol metabolism is associated with soluble amyloid precursor protein production in Alzheimer's disease, J. Neurochem., 123, 310, 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2012.07893.x

Marambaud, 2005, Resveratrol promotes clearance of Alzheimer's disease amyloid-beta peptides, J. Biolumin. Chemilumin., 280, 37377

Shin, 2015, Estrogen receptor-mediated resveratrol actions on blood–brain barrier of ovariectomized mice, Neurobiol. Aging, 36, 993, 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2014.09.024

Wei, 2015, Resveratrol attenuates the blood–brain barrier dysfunction by regulation of the MMP-9/TIMP-1 balance after cerebral ischemia reperfusion in rats, J. Mol. Neurosci. MN, 55, 872, 10.1007/s12031-014-0441-1

Kim, 2012, Resveratrol blocks diabetes-induced early vascular lesions and vascular endothelial growth factor induction in mouse retinas, Acta Ophthalmol. (Copenh), 90, e31, 10.1111/j.1755-3768.2011.02243.x

Jing, 2010, Resveratrol ameliorates vasculopathy in STZ-induced diabetic rats: role of AGE-RAGE signalling, Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev., 26, 212, 10.1002/dmrr.1076

Zhao, 2012, Long-term resveratrol consumption protects ovariectomized rats chronically treated with D-galactose from developing memory decline without effects on the uterus, Brain Res., 1467, 67, 10.1016/j.brainres.2012.05.040

Stonehouse, 2013, DHA supplementation improved both memory and reaction time in healthy young adults: a randomized controlled trial, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 97, 1134, 10.3945/ajcn.112.053371

Nguyen, 2014, Mfsd2a is a transporter for the essential omega-3 fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid, Nature, 509, 503, 10.1038/nature13241

Fonteh, 2014, Human cerebrospinal fluid fatty acid levels differ between supernatant fluid and brain-derived nanoparticle fractions, and are altered in Alzheimer's disease, PLoS One, 9, 10.1371/journal.pone.0100519

Ben-Zvi, 2014, Mfsd2a is critical for the formation and function of the blood–brain barrier, Nature, 509, 507, 10.1038/nature13324

Zhao, 2014, Blood–brain barrier: a dual life of MFSD2A?, Neuron, 82, 728, 10.1016/j.neuron.2014.05.012

Vandal, 2014, Reduction in DHA transport to the brain of mice expressing human APOE4 compared to APOE2, J. Neurochem., 129, 516, 10.1111/jnc.12640

Defina, 2013, The association between midlife cardiorespiratory fitness levels and later-life dementia: a cohort study, Ann. Intern. Med., 158, 162, 10.7326/0003-4819-158-3-201302050-00005

Choi, 2014, Regular exercise training increases the number of endothelial progenitor cells and decreases homocysteine levels in healthy peripheral blood, Korean J. Physiol. Pharmacol. Off. J. Korean Physiol. Soc. Korean Soc. Pharmacol., 18, 163, 10.4196/kjpp.2014.18.2.163

de Senna, 2015, Physical training improves non-spatial memory, locomotor skills and the blood brain barrier in diabetic rats, Brain Res., 1618, 75, 10.1016/j.brainres.2015.05.026

Lazarov, 2005, Environmental enrichment reduces Abeta levels and amyloid deposition in transgenic mice, Cell, 120, 701, 10.1016/j.cell.2005.01.015

Ambrée, 2006, Reduction of amyloid angiopathy and Abeta plaque burden after enriched housing in TgCRND8 mice: involvement of multiple pathways, Am. J. Pathol., 169, 544, 10.2353/ajpath.2006.051107

Prince, 2014, World Alzheimer Report 2014: dementia and risk reduction: an analysis of protective and modifiable factors, Alzheimers Dis Int, 1

Herring, 2008, Environmental enrichment counteracts Alzheimer's neurovascular dysfunction in TgCRND8 mice, Brain Pathol. Zurich Switz., 18, 32, 10.1111/j.1750-3639.2007.00094.x

Wolff, 2015, Exercise maintains blood–brain barrier integrity during early stages of brain metastasis formation, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 463, 811, 10.1016/j.bbrc.2015.04.153

Alakbarzade, 2015, A partially inactivating mutation in the sodium-dependent lysophosphatidylcholine transporter MFSD2A causes a non-lethal microcephaly syndrome, Nat. Genet., 47, 814, 10.1038/ng.3313

Guemez-Gamboa, 2015, Inactivating mutations in MFSD2A, required for omega-3 fatty acid transport in brain, cause a lethal microcephaly syndrome, Nat. Genet., 47, 809, 10.1038/ng.3311

Keller, 2013, Mutations in the gene encoding PDGF-B cause brain calcifications in humans and mice, Nat. Genet., 45, 1077, 10.1038/ng.2723