An overview of chemical additives present in plastics: Migration, release, fate and environmental impact during their use, disposal and recycling

PlasticsEurope, Plastics -the Facts 2014/2015. An analysis of European plastics production, demand and waste data. PlasticsEurope, Brussels. http://www.plasticseurope.org/documents/document/20150227150049 final_plastics_the_facts_2014_2015_260215.pdf, 2015. PlasticsEurope, Compelling facts about plastics. An analysis of European plastics production, demand and recoveryfor 2008. Brussles: Plastics Europe. http://www.plasticseurope.org/Documents/Document/20100225141556Brochure_UK_FactsFigures_2009_22sept_6_Final-20090930-001-EN-v1.pdf, (Accessed 3 January 2011), 2009. M.R.G. PlasticsEurope (MRG), Business Data and Carts 2007. Status September 2008. Plastics Europe Association of Plastics Manufacturers, (2008). Engelhart, 2010 Andrady, 2009, Applications and societal benefits of plastics, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B: Biol. Sci., 364, 1977, 10.1098/rstb.2008.0304 Achilias, 2007, Chemical recycling of plastic wastes made from polyethylene (LDPE and HDPE) and polypropylene (PP), J. Hazard. Mater., 149, 536, 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2007.06.076 Defra, 2014 Lithner, 2017 ASTM, 2000 Hopewell, 2009, Plastics recycling: challenges and opportunities, Philos. Trans. R Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci., 364, 2115, 10.1098/rstb.2008.0311 UNEP, Guidance for the Inventory of commercial Pentabromodiphenyl ether (c-PentaBDE), commercial Octabromodiphenyl ether (c-OctaBDE) and Hexabromobiphenyls (HBB) under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants; Draft. UNEP/POPS/COP.7/INF/27 (2015). UNEP, Guidance on best available techniques and best environmental practices for the recycling and disposal of articles containing polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) listed under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants; Draft January 2015; UNEP/POPS/COP.7/INF/22 2015. PlasticsEurope, Plastics -the Facts 2010. An analysis of European plastics production, demand and recovery for 2009. PlasticsEurope, Brussels. http://www.plasticseurope.org/Document/plastics-the-facts2010.aspx?Page=SEARCH&FolID=2 (Accessed 25 March 2011), 2010. Velis, 2015, Circular economy and global secondary material supply chains, Waste Manage. Res., 33, 389, 10.1177/0734242X15587641 Velis, 2014 Al-Salem, 2009, Recycling and recovery routes of plastic solid waste (PSW): a review, Waste Manage., 29, 2625, 10.1016/j.wasman.2009.06.004 Al-Salem, 2017, A review on thermal and catalytic pyrolysis of plastic solid waste (PSW), J. Environ. Manage., 197, 177, 10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.03.084 Anuar Sharuddin, 2017, Energy recovery from pyrolysis of plastic waste: study on non-recycled plastics (NRP) data as the real measure of plastic waste, Energy Convers. Manage., 148, 925, 10.1016/j.enconman.2017.06.046 Minter, 2013 Chen, 2009, Brominated flame retardants in children’s toys: concentration, composition, and children’s exposure and risk assessment, Environ. Sci. Technol., 43, 4200, 10.1021/es9004834 Chen, 2010, Measurement and human exposure assessment of brominated flame retardants in household products from South China, J. Hazard. Mater., 176, 979, 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.11.138 Puype, 2015, Evidence of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) relevant substances in polymeric food-contact articles sold on the European market, Food Addit. Contam. Part A Chem. Anal. Control Exposure Risk Assess., 32, 410 Shaw, 2010, Halogenated flame retardants: do the fire safety benefits justify the risks?, Rev. Environ. Health, 261 Subramanian, 2016 Khullar, 2009 Gulati, 2010 PlasticsEurope, 2016 UNEP, 2015 Weber, 2003, Relevance of BFRs and thermal conditions on the formation pathways of brominated and brominated–chlorinated dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans, Environ. Int., 29, 699, 10.1016/S0160-4120(03)00118-1 Buekens, 2010, K, PVC and waste incineration – modern technologies solve old problems, 42 Jacquinot, 2000 Depledge, 2013, Plastic litter in the sea, Mar. Environ. Res., 92, 279, 10.1016/j.marenvres.2013.10.002 Brouwer, 2017, The social costs of marine litter along European coasts, Ocean Coast. Manage., 138, 10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2017.01.011 Jambeck, 2015, Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean, Science, 347, 768, 10.1126/science.1260352 Gregory, 2009, Environmental implications of plastic debris in marine settings—entanglement ingestion, smothering, hangers-on, hitch-hiking and alien invasions, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B: Biol. Sci., 364, 2013, 10.1098/rstb.2008.0265 Besseling, 2013, Effects of microplastic on fitness and PCB bioaccumulation by the Lugworm Arenicola marina (L.), Environ. Sci. Technol., 47, 593, 10.1021/es302763x Foekema, 2013, Plastic in North Sea fish, Environ. Sci. Technol., 47, 8818, 10.1021/es400931b Koelmans, 2014, Plastics in the marine environment, Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 33, 5, 10.1002/etc.2426 Wegner, 2012, Effects of nanopolystyrene on the feeding behavior of the blue mussel (Mytilus edulis L.), Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 31, 2490, 10.1002/etc.1984 UNEP, 2014 UNEP, 2016 Hermabessiere, 2017, Occurrence and effects of plastic additives on marine environments and organisms: a review, Chemosphere, 182, 781, 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.05.096 Barnes, 2009, Accumulation and fragmentation of plastic debris in global environments, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B: Biol. Sci., 364, 1985, 10.1098/rstb.2008.0205 Thompson, 2004, Lost at sea: where is all the plastic?, Science, 304, 838, 10.1126/science.1094559 Browne, 2008, Ingested microscopic plastic translocates to the circulatory system of the mussel, mytilus edulis (L.), Environ. Sci. Technol., 42, 5026, 10.1021/es800249a Gouin, 2011, A thermodynamic approach for assessing the environmental exposure of chemicals absorbed to microplastic, Environ. Sci. Technol., 45, 1466, 10.1021/es1032025 Hidalgo-Ruz, 2013, Distribution and abundance of small plastic debris on beaches in the SE Pacific (Chile): a study supported by a citizen science project, Mar. Environ. Res., 87, 12, 10.1016/j.marenvres.2013.02.015 Yamashita, 2007, Floating plastic in the Kuroshio current area, Western North Pacific Ocean, Mar. Pollut. Bull., 54, 485, 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2006.11.012 Moore, 2008, Synthetic polymers in the marine environment: a rapidly increasing long-term threat, Environ. Res., 108, 131, 10.1016/j.envres.2008.07.025 Lavender Law, 2010, Plastic accumulation in the North Atlantic subtropical gyre, Science, 329, 1185, 10.1126/science.1192321 Kalogerakis, 2017, Microplastics generation onset of fragmentation of polyethylene films in marine environment mesocosms, Front. Mar. Sci., 4, 10.3389/fmars.2017.00084 Andrady, 2011, Microplastics in the marine environment, Mar. Pollut. Bull., 62, 1596, 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.05.030 Koelmans, 2015, Nanoplastics in the aquatic environment. critical review, 325 Moore, 2001, A comparison of plastic and plankton in the North Pacific central gyre, Mar. Pollut. Bull., 42, 1297, 10.1016/S0025-326X(01)00114-X Waller, 2017, Microplastics in the Antarctic marine system: an emerging area of research, Sci. Total Environ., 598, 220, 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.03.283 Steer, 2017, Microplastic ingestion in fish larvae in the western English Channel, Environ. Pollut., 226, 250, 10.1016/j.envpol.2017.03.062 Bakir, 2014, Transport of persistent organic pollutants by microplastics in estuarine conditions, Estuarine Coast. Shelf Sci., 140, 14, 10.1016/j.ecss.2014.01.004 Bakir, 2014, Enhanced desorption of persistent organic pollutants from microplastics under simulated physiological conditions, Environ. Pollut., 185, 16, 10.1016/j.envpol.2013.10.007 Andrady, 2017, The plastic in microplastics: a review, Mar. Pollut. Bull., 119, 12, 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.01.082 Mato, 2001, Plastic resin pellets as a transport medium for toxic chemicals in the marine environment, Environ. Sci. Technol., 35, 318, 10.1021/es0010498 UNEP, 2015 Koelmans, 2013, Plastic as a carrier of POPs to aquatic organisms: a model analysis, Environ. Sci. Technol., 47, 7812, 10.1021/es401169n Teuten, 2009, Transport and release of chemicals from plastics to the environment and to wildlife, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B: Biol. Sci., 364, 2027, 10.1098/rstb.2008.0284 Hammer, 2012, Plastics in the marine environment: the dark side of a modern gift, 1, 10.1007/978-1-4614-3414-6_1 Hong, 2013, Expanded polystyrene (EPS) buoy as a possile source of HBCDs in the marine environment, Organohalogen Compd., 75, 882 Koelmans, 2014, Leaching of plastic additives to marine organisms, Environ. Pollut., 187, 49, 10.1016/j.envpol.2013.12.013 Nicholson, 2006 O’Brine, 2010, Degradation of plastic carrier bags in the marine environment, Mar. Pollut. Bull., 60, 2279, 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2010.08.005 UNEP, 2015, Biodegradable plastics and marine litter, Misconceptions, Concerns and Impacts on Marine Environments Balestri, 2017, Biodegradable plastic bags on the seafloor: a future threat for seagrass meadows?, Sci. Total Environ., 605–606, 755, 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.06.249 Ravve, 2000 Larsson, 2011, Environmental and health hazard ranking and assessment of plastic polymers based on chemical composition, Sci. Total Environ., 409, 3309, 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.04.038 Gregory, 2003, Plastics in the environment, 379 Innocenti, 2003, Biodegradability and compostability, 33 Hansen, 2013 Wang, 2011, Compatibilization and morphology development of immiscible ternary polymer blends, Polymer, 52, 191, 10.1016/j.polymer.2010.11.019 Jiang, 2010, Reinforcement of adhesion and development of morphology at polymer–polymer interface via reactive compatibilization: a review, Polym. Eng. Sci., 50, 2273, 10.1002/pen.21686 Nara, 2014, Effects of partial miscibility on the structure and properties of novel high performance blends composed of poly(p-phenylene sulfide) and poly(phenylsulfone), Polym. J., 46, 568, 10.1038/pj.2014.21 El-Hadi, 2014, The effect of additives interaction on the miscibility and crystal structure of two immiscible biodegradable polymers, Polímeros, 24, 9, 10.4322/polimeros.2014.039 Gyekye, 2012 Selke, 2015, Evaluation of biodegradation-promoting additives for plastics, Environ. Sci. Technol., 49, 3769, 10.1021/es504258u Grigsby, 2015, Modifying biodegradable plastics with additives based on condensed tannin esters, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 132 Zheng, 2005, A review of plastic waste biodegradation, Crit. Rev. Biotechnol., 25, 243, 10.1080/07388550500346359 Peres, 2016, Evaluation of the effect of reprocessing on the structure and properties of low density polyethylene/thermoplastic starch blends, Carbohydr. Polym., 136, 210, 10.1016/j.carbpol.2015.09.047 Xanthos, 2012, Recycling of the #5 polymer, Science, 337, 700, 10.1126/science.1221806 Anderson, 2003, Toughening of polylactide by melt blending with linear low-density polyethylene, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 89, 3757, 10.1002/app.12462 Cano, 2002, Determination of adipate plasticizers in poly (vinyl chloride) by microwave-assisted extraction, J. Chromatogr. A, 963, 401, 10.1016/S0021-9673(02)00642-8 Bhunia, 2013, Migration of chemical compounds from packaging polymers during microwave, conventional heat treatment, and storage, Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf., 12, 523, 10.1111/1541-4337.12028 Robertson, 2006 Sablani, 2007, Food packaging interaction, 939 Arvanitoyannis, 2004, Migration of substances from food packaging materials to foods, Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr., 44, 63, 10.1080/10408690490424621 Kattas, 2000, Plastic additives Crompton, 2007 Boussoum, 2006, Interactions between poly(vinyl chloride) stabilised with epoxidised sunflower oil and food simulants, Polym. Degrad. Stab., 91, 579, 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2005.05.036 Lau, 2000, Contamination in food from packaging material, J. Chromatogr. A, 882, 255, 10.1016/S0021-9673(00)00356-3 CEC, Commission implementing regulation (EU) No 321/2011 of 1 April 2011 amending Regulation (EU) No 10/2011 as regards the restriction of use of bisphenol A in plastic infant feeding bottles., Off J Eur Commun, L87 (2011a) 1–2. CEC, Commission implementing regulation (EU) No 1282/2011 of 28 November 2011 amending and correcting commission regulation (EU) No 10/2011 on plastic materials and articles intended to come into contact with food., Off J Eur Commun, L328 (2011b) 22–29. FDA, (Food and Drug Administration) 2012. updated April 2013. Bisphenol A (BPA): use in food contact application. Available from: http://www.fda.gov/newsevents/publichealthfocus/ucm064437.htm#current. Accessed June 3, 2013., (2013). CEC, Commission Regulation (EU) 2016/1416 of 24 August 2016 amending and correcting Regulation (EU) No 10/2011 on plastic materials and articles intended to come into contact with food Off J Eur Commun, L 230 (2016) 22–40. IARC, IARC Monographs Volume 100F Vinyl Chloride, (2012). Vandenberg, 2012, Hormones and endocrine-disrupting chemicals: low-dose effects and nonmonotonic dose responses, Endocr. Rev., 33, 378, 10.1210/er.2011-1050 Velis, 2013, Recycling and resource efficiency: it is time for a change from quantity to quality, Waste Manage. Res., 31, 539, 10.1177/0734242X13489782 Rijk, 2001 J.E. Tønning, K. Pedersen, E. Nilsson, NH, Phthalates in products that children are in direct contact with. Danish Technological Institute. Survey of chemical substances in consumer products, No. 109210. Danish Ministry of the Environment and EPA. http://www.mst.dk/Publikationer/Publications/2010/12/978-87-92708-75-5.htm (Accessed 24 February 2011), (2010). Kim, 2006, Leaching characteristics of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) from flame-retardant plastics, Chemosphere, 65, 506, 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2006.01.019 Brede, 2003, Increased migration levels of bisphenol A from polycarbonate baby bottles after dishwashing, boiling and brushing, Food Addit. Contam., 20, 684, 10.1080/0265203031000119061 Geens, 2010, Intake of bisphenol A from canned beverages and foods on the Belgian market, Food Addit. Contam.: Part A, 27, 1627, 10.1080/19440049.2010.508183 Olea, 1996, Estrogenicity of resinbased composites and sealants used in dentistry, Environ. Health Perspect., 104, 298, 10.1289/ehp.96104298 Sajiki, 2007, (BPA) and its source in foods in Japanese markets, Food Addit. Contam.: Part A, 24, 103, 10.1080/02652030600936383 Al-Malack, 2001, Migration of lead from unplasticized polyvinyl chloride pipes, J. Hazard. Mater., 82, 263, 10.1016/S0304-3894(00)00366-6 Mutsuga, 2006, Migration of formaldehyde and acetaldehyde into mineral water in polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles, Food Addit. Contam., 23, 212, 10.1080/02652030500398361 Fernandes, 2008, 4-Nonylphenol (NP) in food-contact materials: analytical methodology and occurrence, Food Addit. Contam., 25, 364, 10.1080/02652030701564548 Loyo-Rosales, 2004, Migration of nonylphenol from plastic containers to water and a milk surrogate, J. Agric. Food Chem., 52, 2016, 10.1021/jf0345696 Skjevrak, 2003, Volatile organic components migrating from plastic pipes (HDPE, PEX and PVC) into drinking water, Water Res., 37, 1912, 10.1016/S0043-1354(02)00576-6 C. Hennesuse-Boxus, T. Pacary, Emissions from Plastics. Rapra Review Reports, Report 161, vol. 14, no 5. Rapra Technology, Rapra Technology Limited, Shrewsbury, (2003). Kortenkamp, 2007, Ten years of mixing cocktails: a review of combination effects of endocrine-disrupting chemicals, Environ. Health Perspect., 115, 98, 10.1289/ehp.9357 La Mantia, 2002 Lokensgard, 2004 Ferrara, 2001, Diffusion coefficient and activation energy of Irganox 1010 in poly(propylene-co-ethylene) copolymers, Polym. Degrad. Stab., 73, 411, 10.1016/S0141-3910(01)00121-5 Tawfik, 1998, Polystyrene cups and containers: styrene migration, Food Addit. Contam.: Part A, 15, 592, 10.1080/02652039809374686 Ehret-Henry, 1994, Styrene and ethylbenzene migration from polystyrene into dairy products by dynamic purge-and-trap gas chromatography, J. Food Sci., 59, 990, 10.1111/j.1365-2621.1994.tb08174.x Cai, 2014, Effect of microwave heating on the migration of additives from PS, PP and PET container into food simulants, J. Appl. Packag. Res., 6, 11, 10.14448/japr.01.0002 Petersen, 1997, Migration from PVC cling films compared with their field of application, Food Addit. Contam., 14, 345, 10.1080/02652039709374537 Goulas, 2007, Migration of di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate and acetyltributyl citrate plasticizers from food-grade PVC film into sweetened sesame paste (halawa tehineh): kinetic and penetration study, Food Chem. Toxicol., 45, 585, 10.1016/j.fct.2006.10.003 Petersen, 1995, PVC cling film in contact with cheese: health aspects related to global migration and specific migration of DEHA, Food Addit. Contam., 12, 245, 10.1080/02652039509374299 Galotto, 2011, Experimental and theoretical study of LDPE: evaluation of different food simulants and temperatures, Food Res. Int., 44, 3072, 10.1016/j.foodres.2011.07.028 Whitt, 2016, Migration of heavy metals from recycled polyethylene terephthalate during storage and microwave heating, J. Plastic Film Sheeting, 32, 189, 10.1177/8756087915590190 Poovarodom, 2014, Effects of microwave heating on the migration of substances from melamine formaldehyde tableware, Food Addit. Contam.: Part A, 31, 1616, 10.1080/19440049.2014.947638 Gao, 2011, Determination of polymer additives-antioxidants and ultraviolet (UV) absorbers by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with UV photodiode array detection in food simulants, J. Agric. Food Chem., 59, 12982, 10.1021/jf203257b Fankhauser-Noti, 2006, Migration of plasticizers from PVC gaskets of lids for glass jars into oily foods: amount of gasket material in food contact, proportion of plasticizer migrating into food and compliance testing by simulation, Trends Food Sci. Technol., 17, 105, 10.1016/j.tifs.2005.10.013 Xu, 2010, Analysis of phthalate migration from plastic containers to packaged cooking oil and mineral water, J. Agric. Food Chem., 58, 11311, 10.1021/jf102821h Abou Omar, 2017, exposure assessment from olive oil consumption, Environ. Monit. Assess., 189, 341, 10.1007/s10661-017-6048-6 Sanches Silva, 2007, Kinetic migration studies from packaging films into meat products, Meat Sci., 77, 238, 10.1016/j.meatsci.2007.03.009 Lickly, 1995, Migration of styrene from polystyrene foam food-contact articles, Food Chem. Toxicol., 33, 475, 10.1016/0278-6915(95)00009-Q Cooper, 1995, Migration studies on fatty acid amide slip compounds from plastics into food simulants, Food Addit. Contam., 12, 235, 10.1080/02652039509374298 Dopico-Garcı́a, 2003, Determination of antioxidant migration levels from low-density polyethylene films into food simulants, J. Chromatogr. A, 1018, 53, 10.1016/j.chroma.2003.08.025 Galotto, 2004, Suitability of alternative fatty food simulants to study the effect of thermal and microwave heating on overall migration of plastic packaging, Packag. Technol. Sci., 17, 219, 10.1002/pts.660 Biedermann, 2008, Testing migration from the PVC gaskets in metal closures into oily foods, Trends Food Sci. Technol., 19, 145, 10.1016/j.tifs.2007.08.008 Fasano, 2012, Migration of phthalates alkylphenols, bisphenol A and di(2-ethylhexyl)adipate from food packaging, Food Control, 27, 132, 10.1016/j.foodcont.2012.03.005 Wei, 2009, GC/MS method for the determination of adipate plasticizers in ham sausage and its application to kinetic and penetration studies, J. Food Sci., 74, C392, 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2009.01183.x Simoneau, 2012, Identification and quantification of the migration of chemicals from plastic baby bottles used as substitutes for polycarbonate, Food Addit. Contam.: Part A, 29, 469 Ežerskis, 2007, Analytical screening of polyadipates and other plasticisers in poly(vinyl chloride) gasket seals and in fatty food by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry, Anal. Chim. Acta, 604, 29, 10.1016/j.aca.2007.04.047 Li, 2016, Detection of phthalates migration from disposable tablewares to drinking water using hexafluoroisopropanol-induced catanionic surfactant coacervate extraction, J. Pharm. Anal., 6, 292, 10.1016/j.jpha.2016.04.002 NSC National Standard of the People’s Republic of China (NSC), 2006, 2006 WHO, 2011 UEPA, 2006 Freire, 2006, Plasticizers in Brazilian food-packaging materials acquired on the retail market, Food Addit. Contam., 23, 93, 10.1080/02652030500241686 Tsumura, 2002, Phthalates, adipates, citrate and some of the other plasticizers detected in japanese retail foods: a survey, J. Health Sci., 48, 493, 10.1248/jhs.48.493 Badeka, 1996, Effect of microwave heating on the migration of dioctyladipate and acetyltributylcitrate plasticizers from food-grade PVC and PVDC/PVC films into olive oil and water, Z. Lebensm Unters Forch., 202, 313, 10.1007/BF01206103 Garde, 2001, Characterizing the migration of antioxidants from polypropylene into fatty food simulants, Food Addit. Contam., 18, 750, 10.1080/02652030116713 Alin, 2010, Type of polypropylene material significantly influences the migration of antioxidants from polymer packaging to food simulants during microwave heating, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 118, 1084 Alin, 2011, Microwave heating causes rapid degradation of antioxidants in polypropylene packaging, leading to greatly increased specific migration to food simulants As shown by ESI–MS and GC–MS, J. Agric. Food Chem., 59, 5418, 10.1021/jf1048639 Beldì, 2012, Time- and temperature-dependent migration studies of Irganox 1076 from plastics into foods and food simulants, Food Addit. Contam.: Part A, 29, 836, 10.1080/19440049.2011.649304 Reinas, 2012, Migration of two antioxidants from packaging into a solid food and into Tenax®, Food Control, 28, 333, 10.1016/j.foodcont.2012.05.023 Jeon, 2007, Antioxidants and their migration into food simulants on irradiated LLDPE film, LWT, 40, 151, 10.1016/j.lwt.2005.05.017 Alin, 2012, Migration from polycarbonate packaging to food simulants during microwave heating, Polym. Degrad. Stab., 97, 1387, 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2012.05.017 Linssen, 1998, Research note — migration of antioxidants from polyolefins into ethanolic simulants, Packag. Technol. Sci., 11, 241, 10.1002/(SICI)1099-1522(1998090)11:5<241::AID-PTS436>3.0.CO;2-C Noguerol-Cal, 2011, Effect of several variables in the polymer toys additive migration to saliva, Talanta, 85, 2080, 10.1016/j.talanta.2011.07.035 Community, 2002, Directive 2002/72/CE relating to plastic materials destined to contact foodstuffs, Off. J. Eur. Commun., L220, 18 Jin, 2005, Migration of styrene monomer, dimmer and trimers from polystyrene to food simulants, Food Addit. Contam., 22, 693, 10.1080/02652030500160050 Khaksar, 2009, Determination of migration monomer styrene from GPPS (general purpose polystyrene) and HIPS (high impact polystyrene) cups to hot drinks, Toxicol. Mech. Methods, 19, 257, 10.1080/15376510802510299 Paraskevopoulou, 2012, Migration of styrene from plastic packaging based on polystyrene into food simulants, Polym. Int., 61, 141, 10.1002/pi.3161 Kitamura, 2005, Comparative study of the endocrine-disrupting activity of bisphenol a and 19 related compounds, Toxicol. Sci., 84, 249, 10.1093/toxsci/kfi074 Goodson, 2004, Migration of bisphenol A from can coatings-effects of damage, storage conditions and heating, Food Addit. Contam., 21, 1015, 10.1080/02652030400011387 Kubwabo, 2009, Migration of bisphenol A from plastic baby bottles, baby bottle liners and reusable polycarbonate drinking bottles, Food Addi. Contamin.: Part A, 26, 928, 10.1080/02652030802706725 Nam, 2010, Bisphenol A migration from polycarbonate baby bottle with repeated use, Chemosphere, 79, 949, 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2010.02.049 Begley, 1995, Determination of migrants in and migration from nylon food packaging, Food Addit. Contam., 12, 671, 10.1080/02652039509374355 Bomfim, 2011, Migration of (-caprolactam residues in packaging intended for contact with fatty foods, Food Control, 22, 681, 10.1016/j.foodcont.2010.09.017 Munguia-Lopez, 2001, Effect of heat processing and storage time on migration of bisphenol a (BPA) and bisphenol A-diglycidyl ether (BADGE) to aqueous food simulant from mexican can coatings, J. Agric. Food Chem., 49, 3666, 10.1021/jf0009044 Mountfort, 1996, A critical comparison of four test methods for determining overall and specific migration from microwave susceptor packaging, J. Food Prot., 59, 534, 10.4315/0362-028X-59.5.534 Castle, 1989, Migration of poly (ethylene terephthalate) (PET) oligomers from PET plastics into foods during microwave and conventional cooking and into bottled beverages, J. Food Prot., 52, 337, 10.4315/0362-028X-52.5.337 Przybytniak, 2005, Effect of hindered amine light stabilizers on the resistance of polypropylene towards ionizing radiation, Nukleonika, 50, 153 Monteiro, 1998, A GC/MS method for determining UV stabilizers in polyethyleneterephthalate bottles, J. High Resolut. Chromatogr., 21, 317, 10.1002/(SICI)1521-4168(19980501)21:5<317::AID-JHRC317>3.0.CO;2-N Begley, 2004, Migration of a UV stabilizer from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) into food simulants, Food Addit. Contam., 21, 1007, 10.1080/02652030400010447 Pacheco, 2012, An overview of plastic recycling in Rio de Janeir, Resour. Conserv. Recycl., 60, 140, 10.1016/j.resconrec.2011.12.010 Luijsterburg, 2014, Assessment of plastic packaging waste: material origin, methods, properties, Resour. Conserv. Recycl., 85, 88, 10.1016/j.resconrec.2013.10.010 Ionas, 2014, Downsides of the recycling process: harmful organic chemicals in children's toys, Environ. Int., 65, 54, 10.1016/j.envint.2013.12.019 Lee, 2014, The influence of resource strategies on childhood phthalate exposure—the role of REACH in a zero waste society, Environ. Int., 73, 312, 10.1016/j.envint.2014.08.003 Samsonek, 2013, Occurrence of brominated flame retardants in black thermo cups and selected kitchen utensils purchased on the European market, Food Addit. Contam.: Part A, 30, 1976, 10.1080/19440049.2013.829246 Pivnenko, 2016, Recycling of plastic waste: presence of phthalates in plastics from households and industry, Waste Manage., 54, 44, 10.1016/j.wasman.2016.05.014 Shawaphun, 2010, vol. 93, 505 He, 2015, Pollution characteristics and health risk assessment of volatile organic compounds emitted from different plastic solid waste recycling workshops, Environ. Int., 77, 85, 10.1016/j.envint.2015.01.004 Huang, 2013, Pollution characteristics of volatile organic compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and phthalate esters emitted from plastic wastes recycling granulation plants in Xingtan Town South China, Atmos. Environ., 71, 327, 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.02.011 Tang, 2014, Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in soils, sediments, and human hair in a plastic waste recycling area: a neglected heavily polluted area, Environ. Sci. Technol., 48, 1508, 10.1021/es404905u Labunska, 2013, Levels and distribution of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in soil sediment and dust samples collected from various electronic waste recycling sites within Guiyu town, southern China, Environ. Sci.: Processes Impacts, 15, 503 Achanzar, 2014, Acrylonitrile, 76 Huff, 2010, Clarifying carcinogenicity of ethylbenzene, Regul. Toxicol. Pharm., 58, 167, 10.1016/j.yrtph.2010.08.011 European Parliament, 2011 Song, 2014, Environmental effects of heavy metals derived from the e-waste recycling activities in China: a systematic review, Waste Manage., 34, 2587, 10.1016/j.wasman.2014.08.012 Stenvall, 2013, An analysis of the composition and metal contamination of plastics from waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE), Waste Manage., 33, 915, 10.1016/j.wasman.2012.12.022 Tang, 2015, Contamination and risk of heavy metals in soils and sediments from a typical plastic waste recycling area in North China, Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf., 122, 343, 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2015.08.006 Tang, 2016, Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and heavy metals in road dusts from a plastic waste recycling area in north China: implications for human health, Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res., 23, 625, 10.1007/s11356-015-5296-7 Fang, 2013, PM10 and PM2.5 and health risk assessment for heavy metals in a typical factory for cathode ray tube television recycling, Environ. Sci. Technol., 47, 12469, 10.1021/es4026613 Alabi, 2012, Comparative evaluation of environmental contamination and DNA damage induced by electronic-waste in Nigeria and China, Sci. Total Environ., 423, 62, 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.01.056 Luo, 2011, Heavy metal contamination in soils and vegetables near an e-waste processing site, south China, J. Hazard. Mater., 186, 481, 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.11.024 Chen, 2010, Study on adverse impact of e-waste disassembly on surface sediment in East China by chemical analysis and bioassays, J. Soils Sediments, 10, 359, 10.1007/s11368-009-0176-8 Fu, 2013, Influence of E-waste dismantling and its regulations: temporal trend, spatial distribution of heavy metals in rice grains, and its potential health risk, Environ. Sci. Technol., 47, 7437, 10.1021/es304903b Zhu, 2012, The relationship between magnetic parameters and heavy metal contents of indoor dust in e-waste recycling impacted area, Southeast China, Sci. Total Environ., 433, 302, 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.06.067 Xue, 2012, Assessment of noise and heavy metals (Cr, Cu Cd, Pb) in the ambience of the production line for recycling waste printed circuit boards, Environ. Sci. Technol., 46, 494, 10.1021/es202513b Bi, 2010, The major components of particles emitted during recycling of waste printed circuit boards in a typical e-waste workshop of South China, Atmos. Environ., 44, 4440, 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2010.07.040 Asante, 2012, Multi-trace element levels and arsenic speciation in urine of e-waste recycling workers from Agbogbloshie, Accra in Ghana, Sci. Total Environ., 424, 63, 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.02.072 Feldt, 2014, High levels of PAH-metabolites in urine of e-waste recycling workers from Agbogbloshie, Ghana, Sci. Total Environ., 466–467, 369, 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.06.097 Leung, 2010, Body burdens of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in childbearing-aged women at an intensive electronic-waste recycling site in China, Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res., 17, 1300, 10.1007/s11356-010-0310-6 Tue, 2016, Release of chlorinated, brominated and mixed halogenated dioxin-related compounds to soils from open burning of e-waste in Agbogbloshie (Accra Ghana), J. Hazard. Mater., 302, 151, 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2015.09.062 Tue, 2013, Environmental contamination and human exposure to dioxin-related compounds in e-waste recycling sites of developing countries, Environ. Sci.: Processes Impacts, 15, 1326 Yu, 2008, E-waste recycling heavily contaminates a Chinese city with cholinated, brominated and mixed halogenated dioxins, Organohalogen Compd., 70, 813 Zennegg, 2009, Fingerprints of chlorinated,brominated and mixed halogenaed dioxins at two e-waste recycling sites in guiyu/China, Organohalogen Compd., 71, 2263 Tue, 2014, Dioxin-related compounds in breast milk of women from Vietnamese e-waste recycling sites: levels, toxic equivalents and relevance of non-dietary exposure, Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf., 106, 220, 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2014.04.046 Zheng, 2013, Association between lung function in school children and exposure to three transition metals from an e-waste recycling area, J. Expos. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol., 23, 67, 10.1038/jes.2012.84 European Parliament, 2012, L197, 38 Goossens, 2014, Voluntary emissions control action programme (vecap): sound results from a proactive industry, Organohalogen Compd., 76, 1191 Peeters, 2014, Closed loop recycling of plastics containing Flame Retardants, Resour. Conserv. Recycl., 84, 35, 10.1016/j.resconrec.2013.12.006 Babayemi, 2015, Substance flow analysis of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in plastic from EEE/WEEE in Nigeria in the frame of Stockholm Convention as a basis for policy advice, Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res., 22, 14502, 10.1007/s11356-014-3228-6 Babayemi, 2016, Inventory and substance flow analysis of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in the Nigerian transport sector—end-of-life vehicles policy and management, Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res., 1 Leslie, 2013 Razza, 2015, Environmental profile of a bio-based and biodegradable foamed packaging prototype in comparison with the current benchmark, J. Clean. Prod., 102, 493, 10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.04.033 Hopmann, 2015, Influence of recycling of poly(lactic acid) on packaging relevant properties, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 132 Rossi, 2015, Life cycle assessment of end-of-life options for two biodegradable packaging materials: sound application of the European waste hierarchy, J. Clean. Prod., 86, 132, 10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.08.049 Gu, 2017, From waste plastics to industrial raw materials: a life cycle assessment of mechanical plastic recycling practice based on a real-world case study, Sci. Total Environ., 601–602, 1192, 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.05.278 Iacovidou, 2017, A pathway to circular economy: developing a conceptual framework for complex value assessment of resources recovered from waste, J. Clean. Prod., 168, 1279, 10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.09.002