Omega-3 fatty acids and antioxidants in neurological and psychiatric diseases: An overview

Marianna Mazza1, Massimiliano Pomponi1, Luigi Janiri1, Pietro Bria1, Salvatore Mazza2
1Institute of Psychiatry and Psychology, Catholic University of Sacred Heart, Rome, Italy
2Institute of Neurology, Catholic University of Sacred Heart, Rome, Italy

Tài liệu tham khảo

Akbar, 2005, Docosahexaenoic acid: a positive modulator of Akt signaling in neuronal survival, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 102, 10858, 10.1073/pnas.0502903102 Albert, 1998, Fish consumption and risk of sudden cardiac death, JAMA, 279, 23, 10.1001/jama.279.1.23 Al-Omar, 2006, Immediate and delayed treatments with curcumin prevents forebrain ischemia-induced neuronal damage and oxidative insult in the rat hippocampus, Neurochem Res, 31, 611, 10.1007/s11064-006-9059-1 Aman, 1987, The effects of essential fatty acid supplementation by Efamol in hyperactive children, J Abnorm Child Psychol, 15, 75, 10.1007/BF00916467 Andre, 2005, Effects of aging and dietary n-3 fatty acids on rat brain phospholipids: focus on plasmalogens, Lipids, 40, 799, 10.1007/s11745-005-1441-x Andre, 2006, Plasmalogen metabolism-related enzymes in rat brain during aging: influence on n-3 fatty acid intake, Biochimie, 88, 103, 10.1016/j.biochi.2005.06.010 Arnold, 1994, Potential link between dietary-intake of fatty-acids and behavior-pilot exploration of serum-lipids in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol, 4, 171, 10.1089/cap.1994.4.171 Babcock, 1997, Regulation of mitochondrial iron accumulation by Yfh1p, a putative homologue of frataxin, Science, 276, 1709, 10.1126/science.276.5319.1709 Bala, 2006, Neuroprotective and anti-ageing effects of curcumin in aged rat brain regions, Biogerontology, 7, 81, 10.1007/s10522-006-6495-x Barberger-Gateau, 2002, Fish, meat, and risk of dementia: cohort study, BMJ, 325, 932, 10.1136/bmj.325.7370.932 Bazan, 2005, Neuroprotectin D1 (NPD1): a DHA-derived mediator that protects brain and retina against cell injury-induced oxidative stress, Brain Pathol, 15, 159, 10.1111/j.1750-3639.2005.tb00513.x Bennett, 2000, Gene targets related to phospholipid and fatty acid metabolism in schizophrenia and other psychiatric disorders: an update, Prostaglandins, Leukot Essent Fat Acids, 63, 47, 10.1054/plef.2000.0191 Bilici, 2001, Antioxidative enzyme activities and lipid peroxidation in major depression: alterations by antidepressant treatments, J Affect Disord, 64, 43, 10.1016/S0165-0327(00)00199-3 Birch, 1998, Visual acuity and the essentiality of DHA and AA in the diet of term infants, Pediatr Res, 44, 201, 10.1203/00006450-199808000-00011 Bourre, 2004, Roles of unsaturated fatty acids (especially omega-3 fatty acids) in the brain at various ages and during ageing, J Nutr Health Aging, 8, 163 Bourre, 2005, Effect of increasing the omega-3 fatty acid in the diets of animals on the animal products consumed by humans, Med Sci, 21, 773 Bourre, 1989, The effects of dietary α-linolenic acid on the composition of nerve membranes, enzymatic activity, amplitude of electrophysiological parameters, resistance to poisons and performance of learning tasks in rats, J Nutr, 119, 1880, 10.1093/jn/119.12.1880 Bourre, 1991, Essentiality of omega 3 fatty acids for brain structure and function, World Rev Nutr Diet, 66, 103, 10.1159/000419283 Broadhurst, 1998, Rift Valley lake fish and shellfish provided brain-specific nutrition for early Homo, Br J Nutr, 79, 3, 10.1079/BJN19980004 Broadhurst, 2002, Brain-specific lipids from marine, lacustrine or terrestrial food resources: potential impact on early African Homo sapiens, Comp Biochem Physiol, Part B Biochem Mol Biol, 131, 653, 10.1016/S1096-4959(02)00002-7 Burdge, 2004, Alpha-linolenic acid metabolism in men and women: nutritional and biological implications, Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care, 7, 134, 10.1097/00075197-200403000-00006 Calabrese, 2003, Redox regulation of heat shock protein expression in aging and neurodegenerative disorders associated with oxidative stress: a nutritional approach, AminoAcids, 25, 437 Calabrese, 2004, Nitric oxide and cellular stress response in brain aging and neurodegenerative disorders: the role of vitagenes, In Vivo, 18, 245 Calabrese, 2005, Acetylcarnitine induces heme oxygenase in rat astrocytes and protects against oxidative stress: involvement of the transcription factor Nrf2, J Neurosci Res, 79, 509, 10.1002/jnr.20386 Calon, 2004, Docosahexaenoic acid protects from dendritic pathology in an Alzheimer's disease mouse model, Neuron, 43, 633, 10.1016/j.neuron.2004.08.013 Caron, 2001, Evaluation of the antihyperlipidemic properties of dietary supplements, Pharmacotherapy, 21, 481, 10.1592/phco.21.5.481.34499 Catalan, 2002, Cognitive deficits in docosahexaenoic acid-deficient rats, Behav Neurosci, 116, 1022, 10.1037/0735-7044.116.6.1022 Chen, 2006, Curcumin and its analogues as potent inhibitors of low density lipoprotein oxidation: H-atom abstraction from the phenolic groups and possible involvement of the 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl groups, Free Radic Biol Med, 40, 526, 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2005.09.008 Cheng, 2006, Beneficial effects of melatonin in experimental models of Alzheimer disease, Acta Pharmacol Sin, 27, 129, 10.1111/j.1745-7254.2006.00267.x Christensen, 1988, Fat consumption and schizophrenia, Acta Psychiatr Scand, 78, 587, 10.1111/j.1600-0447.1988.tb06388.x Clandinin, 1980, Intrauterine fatty acid accretion rates in human brain: implications for fatty acids requirements, Early Hum Dev, 4, 121, 10.1016/0378-3782(80)90015-8 Clandinin, 2005, Growth and development of preterm infants fed infant formulas containing docosahexaenoic acid and arachidonic acid, J Pediatr, 146, 461, 10.1016/j.jpeds.2004.11.030 Conquer, 2000, Fatty acid analysis of blood plasma of patients with Alzheimer's disease, other types of dementia, and cognitive impairment, Lipids, 35, 1305, 10.1007/s11745-000-0646-3 Conway, 1998, Accelerated in vitro fibril formation by mutant α-synuclein linked to early-onset Parkinson's disease, Nat Med, 4, 1318, 10.1038/3311 Cott, 2001, Lack of seasonal mood change in Icelanders, Am J Psychiatry, 158, 328, 10.1176/appi.ajp.158.2.328 Coyle, 1993, Oxidative stress, glutamate, and neurodegenerative disorders, Science, 262, 689, 10.1126/science.7901908 Crawford, 1997, Are deficits of arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acids responsible for the neuronal and vascular complications of preterm babies?, Am J Clin Nutr, 66, 1032S, 10.1093/ajcn/66.4.1032S Crawford, 1999, Evidence for the unique function of docosahexaenoic acid during the evolution of the modern hominid brain, Lipids, 34, S39, 10.1007/BF02562227 Darios, 2006, Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids stimulate cell membrane expansion by acting on syntaxin 3, Nature, 440, 813, 10.1038/nature04598 Daviglus, 1997, Fish consumption and the 30-year risk of fatal myocardial infarction, N Engl J Med, 336, 1046, 10.1056/NEJM199704103361502 De Vriese, 2004, In humans, the seasonal variation in poly-unsaturated fatty acids is related to the seasonal variation in violent suicide and serotonergic markers of violent suicide, Prostaglandins, Leukot Essent Fat Acids, 71, 13, 10.1016/j.plefa.2003.12.002 deDeckere, 1998, Health aspects of fish and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids from plant and marine origin, Eur J Clin Nutr, 52, 749, 10.1038/sj.ejcn.1600641 Demar, 2005, Alpha-linolenic acid does not contribute appreciably to docosahexaenoic acid within brain phospholipids of adult rats fed a diet enriched in docosahexaenoic acid, J Neurochem, 94, 1063, 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2005.03258.x Double, 2003, Iron-binding characteristics of neuromelanin of the human substantia nigra, Biochem Pharmacol, 66, 489, 10.1016/S0006-2952(03)00293-4 Eaton, 1985, Paleolithic nutrition, N Engl J Med, 312, 283, 10.1056/NEJM198501313120505 Edmond, 2001, Essential polyunsaturated fatty acids and the barrier to the brain: the components of a model for transport, J Mol Neurosci, 16, 181, 10.1385/JMN:16:2-3:181 Elias, 2001, Newborn infant plasma trans, conjugated linoleic, n-6 and n-3 fatty acids are related to maternal plasma fatty acids, length of gestation and birth weight and length, Am J Clin Nutr, 73, 807, 10.1093/ajcn/73.4.807 Engelmann, 2004, Plasmalogens: targets for oxidants and major lipophilic antioxidants, Biochem Soc Trans, 32, 147, 10.1042/bst0320147 Falk, 1998, Hominid brain evolution: looks can be deceiving, Science, 280, 1714, 10.1126/science.280.5370.1714 Farooqui, 2001, Plasmalogens, phospholipase A2, and docosahexaenoic acid turnover in brain tissue, J Mol Neurosci, 16, 263, 10.1385/JMN:16:2-3:263 Fenton, 2001, A placebo-controlled trial of omega-3 fatty acid (ethyl eicosapentaenoic acid) supplementation for residual symptoms and cognitive impairment in schizophrenia, Am J Psychiatry, 158, 2071, 10.1176/appi.ajp.158.12.2071 Fleith, 2005, Dietary PUFA for preterm and term infants: review of clinical studies, Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr, 45, 205, 10.1080/10408690590956378 Floyd, 1999, Antioxidants, oxidative stress, and degenerative neurological disorders, Proc Soc Exp Biol Med, 222, 236, 10.1046/j.1525-1373.1999.d01-140.x Fontani, 2005, Cognitive and physiological effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in healthy subjects, Eur J Clin Invest, 35, 691, 10.1111/j.1365-2362.2005.01570.x Frank, 2001, Levels of monocyte reactive oxygen species are associated with reduced natural killer cell activity in major depressive disorder, Neuropsychobiology, 44, 1, 10.1159/000054906 Freeman, 2000, Omega-3 fatty acids in psychiatry: a review, Ann Clin Psychiatry, 12, 159, 10.3109/10401230009147106 Gaeta, 2005, The crucial role of metal ions in neurodegeneration: the basis for promising therapeutic strategy, Br J Pharmacol, 145, 1041, 10.1038/sj.bjp.0706416 Gendron, 2005, The dual role of prostaglandin E(2) in excitotoxicity and preconditioning-induced neuroprotection, Eur J Pharmacol, 517, 17, 10.1016/j.ejphar.2005.05.031 Gerster, 1998, Can adults adequately convert alpha-linolenic acid (18:3n-3) to eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3)?, Int J Vitam Nutr Res, 68, 159 Graham, 1978, Oxidative pathways for catecholamines in the genesis of neuromelanin and cytotoxic quinones, Mol Pharmacol, 14, 633 Green, 1999, Development changes in membrane lipids and fatty acids: the preferential prenatal accumulation of DHA, J Lipid Res, 40, 960, 10.1016/S0022-2275(20)32132-5 Guan, 1994, Content and fatty acid composition of cardiolipin in the brain of patients with Alzheimer's disease, Neurochem Int, 25, 295, 10.1016/0197-0186(94)90073-6 Haggarty, 1999, Effects of maternal polyunsaturated fatty acid concentration on transport by the human placenta, Biol Neonate, 75, 350, 10.1159/000014115 Hakkarainen, 2004, Is low dietary intake of omega-3 fatty acids associated with depression?, Am J Psychiatry, 161, 567, 10.1176/appi.ajp.161.3.567 Hamazaki, 1996, The effect of docosahexaenoic acid on aggression in young adults. A placebo-controlled double-blind study, J Clin Invest, 97, 1129, 10.1172/JCI118507 Hamed, 2004, Trace elements and electrolytes homeostasis and their relation to antioxidant enzyme activity in brain hyperexcitability of epileptic patients, J Pharmacol Sci, 96, 349, 10.1254/jphs.CRJ04004X Han, 2005, Lipid alterations in the earliest clinically recognizable stage of Alzheimer's disease: implication of the role of lipids in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease, Curr Alzheimer Res, 2, 65, 10.2174/1567205052772786 Hashimoto, 2002, Docosahexaenoic acid provides protection from impairment of learning ability in Alzheimer's disease model rats, J Neurochem, 81, 1084, 10.1046/j.1471-4159.2002.00905.x Hashimoto, 2005, Docosahexaenoic acid-induced amelioration on impairment of memory learning in amyloid beta-infused rates relates to the decreases of amyloid beta and cholesterol levels in detergent-insoluble membrane fractions, Biochim Biophys Acta, 1738, 91, 10.1016/j.bbalip.2005.11.011 Heird, 2005, The role of essential fatty acids in development, Annu Rev Nutr, 25, 549, 10.1146/annurev.nutr.24.012003.132254 Heron, 1980, Lipid fluidity markedly modulates the binding of serotonin to mouse brain membranes, Proc Natl Acad Sci, 77, 7463, 10.1073/pnas.77.12.7463 Hibbeln, 1998, Fish consumption and major depression, Lancet, 351, 1213, 10.1016/S0140-6736(05)79168-6 Hibbeln, 2002, Seafood consumption, the DHA content of mother's milk and prevalence rate of postpartum depression: a cross-national, ecological analysis, J Affect Disord, 69, 15, 10.1016/S0165-0327(01)00374-3 Horrobin, 1998, The membrane phospholipid hypothesis as a biochemical basis for the neurodevelopmental concept of schizophrenia, Schizophr Res, 30, 193, 10.1016/S0920-9964(97)00151-5 Horrobin, 2002, Food, micronutrients, and psychiatry, Int Psychogeriatr, 14, 331, 10.1017/S1041610202008530 Hu, 1997, Dietary fat intake and the risk of coronary heart disease in women, N Engl J Med, 337, 1491, 10.1056/NEJM199711203372102 Hu, 2002, Fish and omega-3 fatty acid intake and risk of coronary heart disease in women, JAMA, 346, 1113 Huan, 2004, Suicide attempt and n-3 fatty acid levels in red blood cells: a case control study in China, Biol Psychiatry, 56, 490, 10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.06.028 Ikemoto, 2001, Reversibility of n-3 fatty acid deficiency-induced alterations of learning behavior in the rat: level of n-6 fatty acids as another critical factor, J Lipid Res, 42, 1655, 10.1016/S0022-2275(20)32220-3 Innis, 2000, The role of dietary n-6 and n-3 fatty acids in the developing brain, Dev Neurosci, 22, 474, 10.1159/000017478 Jain, 2006, Effect of curcumin on protein glycosylation, lipid peroxidation, and oxygen radical generation in human red blood cells exposed to high glucose levels, Free Radic Biol Med, 41, 92, 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2006.03.008 Johnson, 2003, Evidence that eicosapentaenoic acid is effective in treating autism, J Clin Psychiatry, 64, 848, 10.4088/JCP.v64n0718c Johnson, 1979, A systematic assessment of early African hominids, Science, 203, 321, 10.1126/science.104384 Jones, 1997, Evidence for involvement of DHA in cholinergic stimulated signal transduction at the synapse, Neurochem Res, 22, 663, 10.1023/A:1027341707837 Kalmjin, 1997, Dietary fat intake and the risk of incident dementia in the Rotterdam Study, Ann Neurol, 42, 776, 10.1002/ana.410420514 Kelley, 2001, Modulation of human immune and inflammatory responses by dietary fatty acids, Nutrition, 17, 669, 10.1016/S0899-9007(01)00576-7 Kew, 2003, Lack of effect of foods enriched with plant- or marine-derived n-3 fatty acids on human immune function, Am J Clin Nutr, 77, 1287, 10.1093/ajcn/77.5.1287 Kidd, 2004, Bipolar disorder as cell membrane dysfunction. Progress toward integrative management, Altern Med Rev, 9, 107 Klerman, 1989, Increasing rates of depression, JAMA, 261, 2229, 10.1001/jama.1989.03420150079041 Krauss, 2000, AHA Scientific Statement: AHA dietary guidelines revision 2000: a statement for healthcare professionals from the nutrition committee of the American Heart Association, Circulation, 102, 2284, 10.1161/01.CIR.102.18.2284 Kris-Etherton, 2002, Fish consumption, fish oil, omega-3 fatty acids, and cardiovascular disease, Circulation, 106, 2747, 10.1161/01.CIR.0000038493.65177.94 Kromhout, 1985, The inverse relationship between fish consumption and 20-year mortality from coronary heart disease, N Engl J Med, 312, 1205, 10.1056/NEJM198505093121901 Kubo, 2005, Primary aminophospholipids in the external layer of liposomes protect their component polyunsaturated fatty acids from 2,2′-azobis(2-amidinopropane)-dihydrochloride-mediated lipid peroxidation, J Agric Food Chem, 53, 750, 10.1021/jf048867u Kuipers, 2005, High contents of both docosahexaenoic and arachidonic acids in milk of women consuming fish from lake Kitangiri (Tanzania): targets for infant formulae close to our ancient diet?, Prostaglandins, Leukot Essent Fat Acids, 72, 279, 10.1016/j.plefa.2004.12.001 Kyle, 1999, Low serum docosahexaenoic acid is a significant risk factor for Alzheimer's dementia, Lipids, 34, S245, 10.1007/BF02562306 La Guardia, 2005, Omega 3 fatty acids: biological activity and effects on human health, Panminerva Med, 47, 245 Lafon-Cazal, 1993, NMDA-dependent superoxide production and neurotoxicity, Nature, 364, 535, 10.1038/364535a0 Lauritzen, 2001, The essentiality of long chain omega-3 fatty acids in relation to the development and function of the brain, Prog Lipid Res, 40, 1, 10.1016/S0163-7827(00)00017-5 Lim, 2005, A diet enriched with omega-3 fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid reduces amyloid burden in an aged Alzheimer mouse model, J Neurosci, 25, 3032, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4225-04.2005 Lombard, 2000, What is the role of food in preventing depression and improving mood, performance and cognitive function, Med J Aust, 173, 63 Lukiw, 2005, A role for docosahexaenoic acid-derived neuroprotectin D1 in neural cell survival and Alzheimer disease, J Clin Invest, 115, 2774, 10.1172/JCI25420 Maes, 1999, Lowered omega3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in serum phospholipids and cholesteryl esters of depressed patients, Psychiatry Res, 85, 275, 10.1016/S0165-1781(99)00014-1 Mahadik, 2006, Prevention of oxidative stress-mediated neuropathology and improved clinical outcome by adjunctive use of a combination of antioxidants and omega-3 fatty acids in schizophrenia, Int Rev Psychiatry, 18, 119, 10.1080/09540260600581993 Mandel, 2005, Multifunctional activities of green tea catechins in neuroprotection. Modulation of cell survival genes, iron-dependent oxidative stress and PKC signaling pathway, Neurosignals, 14, 46, 10.1159/000085385 Marcheselli, 2003, Novel docosanoids inhibit brain ischemia–reperfusion-mediated leukocyte infiltration and pro-inflammatory gene expression, J Biol Chem, 278, 43807, 10.1074/jbc.M305841200 Matsuo, 1994, Correlation between myeloperoxidase-quantified neutrophil accumulation and ischemic brain injury in the rat. Effects of neutrophil depletion, Stroke, 25, 1469, 10.1161/01.STR.25.7.1469 Matsuoka, 2005, Prostaglandin E receptor EP1 controls impulsive behavior under stress, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 102, 16066, 10.1073/pnas.0504908102 McCann, 2005, Is docosahexaenoic, an n-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid, required for development of normal brain function? An overview of evidence from cognitive and behavioral tests in humans and animals, Am J Clin Nutr, 82, 281, 10.1093/ajcn/82.2.281 McGahon, 1999, Age-related changes in synaptic function: analysis of the effect of dietary supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids, Neuroscience, 94, 305, 10.1016/S0306-4522(99)00219-5 McGahon, 1999, Age-related changes in LTP and antioxidant defenses are reversed by an alpha-lipoic acid-enriched diet, Neurobiol Aging, 20, 655, 10.1016/S0197-4580(99)00050-0 Miles, 2004, The influence of different combinations of gamma-linolenic acid, stearidonic acid and EPA on immune function in healthy young male subjects, Br J Nutr, 91, 893, 10.1079/BJN20041131 Mirnikjoo, 2001, Protein kinase inhibition by omega-3 fatty acids, J Biol Chem, 276, 10888, 10.1074/jbc.M008150200 Moriguchi, 2000, Behavioral deficits associated with dietary induction of decreased brain docosahexaenoic acid concentration, J Neurochem, 75, 2563, 10.1046/j.1471-4159.2000.0752563.x Morris, 2003, Consumption of fish and n-3 fatty acids and risk of incidence Alzheimer disease, Arch Neurol, 60, 940, 10.1001/archneur.60.7.940 Morris, 2005, Fish consumption and cognitive decline with age in large community study, Arch Neurol, 62, 1849, 10.1001/archneur.62.12.noc50161 Murck, 2004, Ethyl-eicosapentaenoate and dexamethasone resistance in therapy-refractory depression, Int J Neuropsychopharmacol, 1, 1 Nemets, 2002, Addition omega-3 fatty acid to maintenance medication treatment for recurrent unipolar depressive disorder, Am J Psychiatry, 159, 477, 10.1176/appi.ajp.159.3.477 Neuringer, 1993, Cerebral cortex DHA is lower in formula-fed than in breast-fed infants, Nutr Rev, 51, 238, 10.1111/j.1753-4887.1993.tb03112.x Noaghiul, 2003, Cross-national comparisons of seafood consumption and rates of bipolar disorders, Am J Psychiatry, 160, 2222, 10.1176/appi.ajp.160.12.2222 Nordvik, 2000, Effect of dietary advice and n-3 supplementation in newly diagnosed MS patients, Acta Neurol Scand, 102, 143, 10.1034/j.1600-0404.2000.102003143.x Otero, 2005, Leptin, from fat to inflammation: old questions and new insights, FEBS Lett, 579, 295, 10.1016/j.febslet.2004.11.024 Paradies, 1994, Effect of aging and acetyl-l-carnitine on the activity of cytochrome oxidase and adenine nucleotide translocase in rat heart mitochondria, FEBS Lett, 350, 213, 10.1016/0014-5793(94)00763-2 Parker, 2006, Omega-3 fatty acids and mood disorders, Am J Psychiatry, 163, 969, 10.1176/appi.ajp.163.6.969 Patrick, 2004, Selenium biochemistry and cancer: a review of the literature, Altern Med Rev, 9, 239 Peet, 2003, Eicosapentaenoic acid in the treatment of schizophrenia and depression: rationale and preliminary double-blind clinical trial results, Prostaglandins, Leukot Essent Fat Acids, 69, 477, 10.1016/j.plefa.2003.08.020 Pischon, 2003, Habitual dietary intake of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids in relation to inflammatory markers among US men and women, Circulation, 108, 155, 10.1161/01.CIR.0000079224.46084.C2 Purdon, 2002, Energy consumption by phospholipid metabolism in mammalian brain, Neurochem Res, 27, 1641, 10.1023/A:1021635027211 Rapoport, 2001, In vivo fatty acid incorporation into brain phospholipids in relation to plasma availability, signal, transduction and membrane remodeling, J Mol Neurosci, 16, 243, 10.1385/JMN:16:2-3:243 Rapoport, 2002, Do lithium and anticonvulsants target the brain arachidonic acid cascade in bipolar disorder?, Arch Gen Psychiatry, 59, 592, 10.1001/archpsyc.59.7.592 Rapoport, 2001, Delivery and turnover of plasma-derived essential PUFAs in mammalian brain, J Lipid Res, 42, 678, 10.1016/S0022-2275(20)31629-1 Reiter, 1998, Melatonin, active oxygen species and neurological damage, Drug News Perspect, 11, 291, 10.1358/dnp.1998.11.5.863675 Richardson, 2001, Fatty acids in dyslexia, dyspraxia, ADHD and the autistic spectrum, Nutr Pract, 3, 18 Richardson, 2002, Fatty acids in dyslexia, dyspraxia and ADHD, can nutrition help?, Food Behav Res, 1, 1 Richardson, 2002, A randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the effects of supplementation with highly unsaturated fatty acids on ADHD-related symptoms in children with specific learning difficulties, Prog Neuro-Psychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry, 26, 233, 10.1016/S0278-5846(01)00254-8 Richardson, 2000, Fatty acid metabolism in neurodevelopment disorders: a new perspective on association between attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorders, dyslexia, dyspraxia and autistic spectrum, Prostaglandins, Leukot Essent Fat Acids, 63, 69, 10.1054/plef.2000.0194 Roberts, 1998, J Biol Chem, 273, 13605, 10.1074/jbc.273.22.13605 Ross, 2003, Increased levels of ethane, a non-invasive marker of n-3 fatty acid oxidation, in breath of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, Nutr Neurosci, 6, 277, 10.1080/10284150310001612203 Sanders, 2000, Polyunsaturated fatty acids in the food chain in Europe, Am J Clin Nutr, 71S, 1765 Sayre, 2005, Metal ions and oxidative protein modification in neurological disease, Ann Ist Super Sanità, 41, 143 Schmidt, 2005, Antioxidative and steroid systems in neurological and psychiatric disorders, World J Biol Psychiatry, 6, 26, 10.1080/15622970510029759 Serhan, 2000, Novel functional sets of lipid-derived mediators with antiinflammatory actions generated from omega-3 fatty acids via cyclooxygenase 2-nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs and transcellular processing, J Exp Med, 192, 1197, 10.1084/jem.192.8.1197 Serhan, 2002, Resolvins: a family of bioactive products of omega-3 fatty acid transformation circuits initiated by aspirin treatment that counter proinflammation signals, J Exp Med, 196, 1025, 10.1084/jem.20020760 Silvers, 2002, Fish consumption and self-reported physical and mental health status, Public Nutr, 17, 859 Sinclair, 1975, Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in mammalian brain, Proc Nutr Soc, 34, 287, 10.1079/PNS19750051 Sinitsyna, 2006, Age-associated changes in oxidative damage and the activity of antioxidant enzymes in rats with inherited overgeneration of free radicals, J Cell Mol Med, 10, 206, 10.1111/j.1582-4934.2006.tb00301.x Siscovick, 1995, Dietary intake and cell membrane levels of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and the risk of primary cardiac arrest, JAMA, 274, 1363, 10.1001/jama.1995.03530170043030 Skinner, 1993, Differences in the fatty acid composition of the grey and white matter of different regions of the brains of patients with Alzheimer's disease and control subjects, Brain, 116, 717, 10.1093/brain/116.3.717 Soderberg, 1991, Fatty acid composition of brain phospholipids in aging and in Alzheimer's disease, Lipids, 26, 421, 10.1007/BF02536067 Spadoni, 2006, Synthesis, antioxidant activity and structure-activity relationships for a new series of 2-(N-acylaminoethyl)indoles with melatonin-like cytoprotective activity, J Pineal Res, 40, 259, 10.1111/j.1600-079X.2005.00309.x Sperling, 1993, Dietary omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids inhibit phosphoinositide formation and chemotaxis in neutrophils, J Clin Invest, 91, 651, 10.1172/JCI116245 Stoll, 1999, Omega 3 fatty acids in bipolar disorder: a preliminary double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, Arch Gen Psychiatry, 56, 407, 10.1001/archpsyc.56.5.407 Studer, 2005, Effect of different antilipidemic agents and diets on mortality: a systematic review, Arch Intern Med, 165, 725, 10.1001/archinte.165.7.725 Su, 2003, Omega-e fatty acids in major depressive disorder: a preliminary double-blind placebo-controlled trial, Eur Neuropsychopharmacol, 13, 267, 10.1016/S0924-977X(03)00032-4 Surette, 2003, Inhibition of leukotriene biosynthesis by a novel dietary fatty acid formulation in patients with atopic asthma: a randomized, placebo-controlled, parallel-group, prospective trial, Clin Ther, 25, 972, 10.1016/S0149-2918(03)80117-0 Tanskanen, 2001, Fish consumption and depressive symptoms in general population in Finland, Psychiatr Serv, 52, 529, 10.1176/appi.ps.52.4.529 Tanskanen, 2003, Fish consumption, depression, and suicidality in a general population, Arch Gen Psychiatry, 58, 512, 10.1001/archpsyc.58.5.512 Thies, 2001, Association of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids with stability of atherosclerotic plaques: a randomized controlled trial, Lancet, 361, 477, 10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12468-3 Tiemeier, 2003, Plasma fatty acid composition and depression are associated in the elderly: the Rotterdam Study, Am J Clin Nutr, 78, 40, 10.1093/ajcn/78.1.40 Tully, 2003, Low serum cholesteryl ester-docosahexaenoic acid levels in Alzheimer's disease: a case-control study, Br J Nutr, 89, 483, 10.1079/BJN2002804 Udell, 2005, The effect of alpha-linolenic acid and linolenic acid on the growth and development of formula-fed infants: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials, Lipids, 40, 1, 10.1007/s11745-005-1354-8 Vlaardingerbroek, 2006, Essential polyunsaturated fatty acids in plasma and erythrocytes of children with inborn errors of amino acid metabolism, Mol Genet Metab, 88, 159, 10.1016/j.ymgme.2006.01.012 Voigt, 2001, A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of docosahexaenoic acid supplementation in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, J Pediatr, 139, 189, 10.1067/mpd.2001.116050 Walter, 2000, Early human occupation of the Red Sea coast of Eritrea during the last interglacial, Nature, 405, 65, 10.1038/35011048 Wang, 2006, Role of melatonin in Alzheimer-like neurodegeneration, Acta Pharmacol Sin, 27, 41, 10.1111/j.1745-7254.2006.00260.x Weinstock-Guttman, 2005, Low fat dietary intervention with omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in multiple sclerosis patients, Prostaglandins, Leukot Essent Fat Acids, 73, 397, 10.1016/j.plefa.2005.05.024 Werneke, 2006, Complementary medicines in psychiatry: review of effectiveness and safety, Br J Psychiatry, 188, 109, 10.1192/bjp.188.2.109 Xu, 2005, Dual effects of copper–zinc superoxide dismutase, Biochem Biophys Res Commun, 336, 1190, 10.1016/j.bbrc.2005.08.249 Yavin, 2002, Docosahexaenoic acid abundance in the brain: a bioevidence to combat oxidative stress, Nutr Neurosci, 5, 149, 10.1080/10284150290003159 Yehuda, 1998, Modulation of learning and neuronal membrane composition in the rat by essential fatty acid preparation: time-course analysis, Neurochem Res, 23, 627, 10.1023/A:1022430620205 Yuen, 2005, Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in patients with chronic epilepsy: a randomized trial, Epilepsy Behav, 7, 253, 10.1016/j.yebeh.2005.04.014 Zanarini, 2003, Omega-3 fatty acid treatment of women with borderline personality disorder: a double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study, Am J Psychiatry, 160, 167, 10.1176/appi.ajp.160.1.167