Is the safety-in-numbers effect still observed in areas with low pedestrian activities? A case study of a suburban area in the United States

Abdel-Aty, 2013, Geographical unit based analysis in the context of transportation safety planning, Transp. Res. Part A: Policy Pract., 49, 62 Alarifi, 2017, Crash modeling for intersections and segments along corridors: a Bayesian multilevel joint model with random parameters, Anal. Methods Accid. Res., 16, 48, 10.1016/j.amar.2017.08.002 Anastasopoulos, 2009, A note on modeling vehicle accident frequencies with random-parameters count models, Accid. Anal. Prevent., 41, 153, 10.1016/j.aap.2008.10.005 Bahar, 2008 Cai, 2016, Macro-level pedestrian and bicycle crash analysis: incorporating spatial spillover effects in dual state count models, Accid. Anal. Prevent., 93, 14, 10.1016/j.aap.2016.04.018 Cai, 2017, Comparative analysis of zonal systems for macro-level crash modeling, J. Saf. Res., 61, 157, 10.1016/j.jsr.2017.02.018 Cai, 2018, Developing a grouped random parameters multivariate spatial model to explore zonal effects for segment and intersection crash modeling, Anal. Methods Accid. Res., 19, 1, 10.1016/j.amar.2018.05.001 Daniels, 2010, Explaining variation in safety performance of roundabouts, Accid. Anal. Prevent., 42, 393, 10.1016/j.aap.2009.08.019 Dong, 2016, Macroscopic hotspots identification: a Bayesian spatio-temporal interaction approach, Accid. Anal. Prevent., 92, 256, 10.1016/j.aap.2016.04.001 Elvik, 2017, Exploring factors influencing the strength of the safety-in-numbers effect, Accid. Anal. Prevent., 100, 75, 10.1016/j.aap.2016.12.013 Elvik, 2017, Safety-in-numbers: a systematic review and meta-analysis of evidence, Saf. Sci., 92, 274, 10.1016/j.ssci.2015.07.017 Elvik, 2013, Factors influencing safety in a sample of marked pedestrian crossings selected for safety inspections in the city of Oslo, Accid. Anal. Prevent., 59, 64, 10.1016/j.aap.2013.05.011 Fayish, 2010, Safety effectiveness of leading pedestrian intervals evaluated by a before-after study with comparison groups, Transp. Res. Rec.: J. Transp. Res. Board, 2198, 15, 10.3141/2198-03 FHWA, 2017 Fitzpatrick, 2010 Geyer, 2006 Gkritza, 2008, Mixed logit analysis of safety-belt use in single-and multi-occupant vehicles, Accid. Anal. Prevent., 40, 443, 10.1016/j.aap.2007.07.013 Jacobsen, 2003, Safety in numbers: more walkers and bicyclists, safer walking and bicycling, Inj. Prev., 9, 205, 10.1136/ip.9.3.205 Jacobsen, 2009, Who owns the roads? How motorised traffic discourages walking and bicycling, Inj. Prev., 15, 369, 10.1136/ip.2009.022566 Kröyer, 2016, Pedestrian and bicyclist flows in accident modelling at intersections. Influence of the length of observational period, Saf. Sci., 82, 315, 10.1016/j.ssci.2015.09.015 LaPlante, 2008, Complete streets: We can get there from here, ITE J., 78, 24 Lawson, 2003, Vol. 11 Leden, 2002, Pedestrian risk decrease with pedestrian flow. A case study based on data from signalized intersections in Hamilton, Ontario, Accid. Anal. Prevent., 34, 457, 10.1016/S0001-4575(01)00043-4 Lee, 2014 Lee, 2014, Analysis of residence characteristics of at-fault drivers in traffic crashes, Saf. Sci., 68, 6, 10.1016/j.ssci.2014.02.019 Lee, 2014, Development of zone system for macro-level traffic safety analysis, J. Transp. Geogr., 38, 13, 10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2014.04.018 Lee, 2015, Multi-level hot zone identification for pedestrian safety, Accid. Anal. Prevent., 76, 64, 10.1016/j.aap.2015.01.006 Lee, 2015, Multivariate crash modeling for motor vehicle and non-motorized modes at the macroscopic level, Accid. Anal. Prevent., 78, 146, 10.1016/j.aap.2015.03.003 Lee, 2018, Evaluation of surrogate measures for pedestrian trips at intersections and crash modeling, Accid. Anal. Prevent. Milton, 2008, Highway accident severities and the mixed logit model: an exploratory empirical analysis, Accid. Anal. Prevent., 40, 260, 10.1016/j.aap.2007.06.006 Miranda-Moreno, 2011, The link between built environment, pedestrian activity and pedestrian–vehicle collision occurrence at signalized intersections, Accid. Anal. Prevent., 43, 1624, 10.1016/j.aap.2011.02.005 Schneider, 2010, Association between roadway intersection characteristics and pedestrian crash risk in Alameda County, California, Transp. Res. Rec.: J. Transp. Res. Board, 2198, 41, 10.3141/2198-06 Spiegelhalter, 2002, Bayesian measures of model complexity and fit, J. R. Stat. Soc.: Series B (Stat. Methodol.), 64, 583, 10.1111/1467-9868.00353 Tasic, 2017, Exploring the safety in numbers effect for vulnerable road users on a macroscopic scale, Accid. Anal. Prevent., 109, 36, 10.1016/j.aap.2017.07.029 Wang, 2013, A Poisson-lognormal conditional-autoregressive model for multivariate spatial analysis of pedestrian crash counts across neighborhoods, Accid. Anal. Prevent., 60, 71, 10.1016/j.aap.2013.07.030 Weinstein Agrawal, 2008, How far, by which route and why? A spatial analysis of pedestrian preference, J. Urban Des., 13, 81, 10.1080/13574800701804074 Wetzel, 2016 Xie, 2018, Bayesian approach to model pedestrian crashes at signalized intersections with measurement errors in exposure, Accid. Anal. Prevent., 121, 285, 10.1016/j.aap.2018.09.030 Xu, 2017, Rethinking safety in numbers: are intersections with more crossing pedestrians really safer?, Inj. Prev. Yu, 2013, Investigating different approaches to develop informative priors in hierarchical Bayesian safety performance functions, Accid. Anal. Prevent., 56, 51, 10.1016/j.aap.2013.03.023 Zegeer, 2005