Unintended effects of epidural analgesia during labor: A systematic review

Hawkins, 1999, Update on anesthesia practices in the US, A53 Zhang, 1999, Epidural analgesia in association with duration of labor and mode of delivery: a quantitative review, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 180, 970, 10.1016/S0002-9378(99)70669-1 Piper, 1991, The second stage of labor: factors influencing duration, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 165, 976, 10.1016/0002-9378(91)90452-W Lurie, 1991, Epidural anesthesia shortens duration of labor in singleton vertex presentation spontaneous delivery, Asia Oceania J Obstet Gynaecol, 17, 203, 10.1111/j.1447-0756.1991.tb00261.x Concato, 2000, Randomized, controlled trials, observational studies, and the hierarchy of research designs, N Engl J Med, 342, 1887, 10.1056/NEJM200006223422507 Benson, 2000, A comparison of observational studies and randomized, controlled trials, N Engl J Med, 342, 1878, 10.1056/NEJM200006223422506 Greenland, 1994, Quality scores are useless and potentially misleading, Am J Epidemiol, 140, 300, 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a117250 Juni, 1999, The hazards of scoring the quality of clinical trials for meta-analysis, JAMA, 282, 1054, 10.1001/jama.282.11.1054 Fletcher, 1996 Sacks, 1982, Randomized versus historical controls for clinical trials, Am J Med, 72, 233, 10.1016/0002-9343(82)90815-4 Williams, 1983, Controlling the rise in cesarean section rates by the dissemination of information from vital records, Am J Public Health, 73, 863, 10.2105/AJPH.73.8.863 Lagrew, 1996, Decreasing the cesarean section rate in a private hospital: success without mandated clinical changes, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 174, 184, 10.1016/S0002-9378(96)70392-7 Albers, 1996, The length of active labor in normal pregnancies, Obstet Gynecol, 87, 355, 10.1016/0029-7844(95)00423-8 Taffel, 1994, Cesarean delivery in the United States, 1990. National Center for Health Statistics, Vital Health Stat, 21 Howell, 2001, A randomised controlled trial of epidural compared with non-epidural analgesia in labour, Br J Obstet Gynaecol, 108, 27, 10.1016/S0306-5456(00)00012-7 Cammu, 1994, Epidural analgesia in active management of labor, Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand, 73, 235, 10.3109/00016349409023446 Thorp, 1993, The effect of intrapartum epidural analgesia on nulliparous labor: a randomized, controlled, prospective trial, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 169, 851, 10.1016/0002-9378(93)90015-B Sharma, 1997, Cesarean delivery: a randomized trial of epidural versus patient-controlled meperidine analgesia during labor, Anesthesiology, 87, 487, 10.1097/00000542-199709000-00006 Ramin, 1995, Randomized trial of epidural versus intravenous analgesia during labor, Obstet Gynecol, 86, 783, 10.1016/0029-7844(95)00269-W Clark, 1998, The influence of epidural analgesia on cesarean delivery rates: a randomized, prospective clinical trial, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 179, 1527, 10.1016/S0002-9378(98)70019-5 Loughnan, 2000, Randomized controlled comparison of epidural bupivacaine versus pethidine for analgesia in labour, Br J Anaesth, 84, 715, 10.1093/oxfordjournals.bja.a013580 Dashe, 1999, Epidural analgesia and intrapartum fever: placental findings, Obstet Gynecol, 93, 341, 10.1016/S0029-7844(98)00415-3 Lieberman, 1996, Association of epidural analgesia with cesarean delivery in nulliparas, Obstet Gynecol, 88, 993, 10.1016/S0029-7844(96)00359-6 Lyon, 1997, The effect of instituting an elective labor epidural program on the operative delivery rate, Obstet Gynecol, 90, 135, 10.1016/S0029-7844(97)00214-7 Rojansky, 1997, Effect of epidural analgesia on duration and outcome of induced labor, Int J Gynaecol Obstet, 56, 237, 10.1016/S0020-7292(96)02804-4 Thorp, 1989, The effect of continuous epidural analgesia on cesarean section for dystocia in nulliparous women, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 161, 670, 10.1016/0002-9378(89)90377-3 Thorp, 1991, Epidural analgesia and cesarean section for dystocia: risk factors in nulliparas, Am J Perinatol, 8, 402, 10.1055/s-2007-999426 Robinson, 1980, Maternal opinion about analgesia for labour: a controlled trial between epidural block and intramuscular pethidine combined with inhalation, Anaesthesia, 35, 1173, 10.1111/j.1365-2044.1980.tb05074.x Nikkola, 1997, Intravenous fentanyl PCA during labour, Can J Anaesth, 44, 1248, 10.1007/BF03012771 Bofill, 1997, Nulliparous active labor, epidural analgesia, and cesarean delivery for dystocia, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 177, 1465, 10.1016/S0002-9378(97)70092-9 Philipsen, 1989, Epidural block or parenteral pethidine as analgesic in labour: a randomized study concerning progress in labour and instrumental deliveries, Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol, 30, 27, 10.1016/0028-2243(89)90090-7 Lieberman, 1999, Epidurals and cesareans: the jury is still out, Birth, 26, 196, 10.1046/j.1523-536x.1999.00196.x Lieberman, 1999, Epidural analgesia and cesarean delivery, JAMA, 281, 2085 Ecker, 2001, Increased risk for cesarean delivery after a trial of labor with advancing maternal age: indications and associated factors, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 185, 883, 10.1067/mob.2001.117364 Ventura, 1999, Births: final data for 1997, Natl Vital Stat Report, 47, 1 Kanto, 1983, Segmental epidural analgesia—a modern method for safe and effective management of labor pains, Biol Res Pregnancy Perinatol, 4, 172 Harrison, 1987, A comparative study of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS), entonox, pethidine + promazine and lumbar epidural for pain relief in labor, Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand, 66, 9, 10.3109/00016348709092945 Studd, 1980, The effect of lumbar epidural analgesia on the rate of cervical dilatation and the outcome of labour of spontaneous onset, Br J Obstet Gynaecol, 87, 1015, 10.1111/j.1471-0528.1980.tb04466.x Muhlen-Schulte, 1988, Intervention in childbirth and neonatal responsiveness, Community Health Stud, 12, 69, 10.1111/j.1753-6405.1988.tb00574.x Neuhoff, 1989, Cesarean birth for failed progress in labor, Obstet Gynecol, 73, 915 Manyonda, 1990, The effect of delayed pushing in the second stage of labor with continuous lumbar epidural analgesia, Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand, 69, 291, 10.3109/00016349009036149 Peaceman, 1993, Factors that influence route of delivery—active versus traditional labor management, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 169, 940, 10.1016/0002-9378(93)90031-D Kong, 1992, Rupture of membranes before the onset of spontaneous labour increases the likelihood of instrumental delivery, Br J Anaesth, 68, 252, 10.1093/bja/68.3.252 Stoddart, 1994, Low dose bupivacaine/fentanyl epidural infusions in labour and mode of delivery, Anaesthesia, 49, 1087, 10.1111/j.1365-2044.1994.tb04362.x Driver, 1996, Epidural bupivacaine/fentanyl infusions vs. intermittent top-ups: a retrospective study of the effects on mode of delivery in primiparous women, Eur J Anaesthesiol, 13, 515, 10.1097/00003643-199609000-00017 Hemminki, 1996, Epidural analgesia as a risk factor for operative delivery, Int J Gynaecol Obstet, 53, 125, 10.1016/0020-7292(95)02641-X Thompson, 1998, Does epidural analgesia cause dystocia?, J Clin Anesth, 10, 58, 10.1016/S0952-8180(97)00222-5 Seyb, 1999, Risk of cesarean delivery with elective induction of labor at term in nulliparous women, Obstet Gynecol, 94, 600, 10.1016/S0029-7844(99)00377-4 Walker, 1999, The relationship between method of pain management during labor and birth outcomes, Clin Nurs Res, 8, 119, 10.1177/10547739922158197 Zimmer, 2000, Adverse effects of epidural analgesia in labor, Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol, 89, 153, 10.1016/S0301-2115(99)00191-8 Yancey, 1999, Observations on labor epidural analgesia and operative delivery rates, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 180, 353, 10.1016/S0002-9378(99)70213-9 Traynor, 2000, Is the management of epidural analgesia associated with an increased risk of cesarean delivery?, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 182, 1058, 10.1067/mob.2000.105439 McRae-Bergeron, 1998, The effect of epidural analgesia on the second stage of labor, AANA J, 66, 177 Diro, 1985, Segmental epidural analgesia in labor: a matched control study, J Natl Med Assoc, 77, 569 Bright, 1993, Epidural analgesia for labor in a community hospital, Fam Pract Res J, 13, 261 Niehaus, 1988, The effects of epidural anesthesia on type of delivery, J Am Board Fam Pract, 1, 238 Khan, 1993, The safety of epidural analgesia in labour and its effect on delivery—a case control study in Pakistani women, J Pak Med Assoc, 43, 115 Nielsen, 1996, Fetal heart rate changes after intrathecal sufentanil or epidural bupivacaine for labor analgesia: incidence and clinical significance, Anesth Analg, 83, 742, 10.1213/00000539-199610000-00014 Russell, 1996, Long term backache after childbirth: prospective search for causative factors, BMJ, 312, 1384, 10.1136/bmj.312.7043.1384a Okojie, 1999, Update on some aspects of the use of epidural analgesia in labour, Int J Clin Pract, 53, 418 Suidan, 1999, Obstetrical outcome following epidural analgesia in 506 consecutive deliveries, J Med Liban, 47, 329 Dickinson, 1997, Factors influencing the selection of analgesia in spontaneously labouring nulliparous women at term, Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol, 37, 289, 10.1111/j.1479-828X.1997.tb02411.x Gribble, 1991, Effect of epidural analgesia on the primary cesarean rate, Obstet Gynecol, 78, 231 Impey, 2000, Epidural analgesia need not increase operative delivery rates, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 182, 358, 10.1016/S0002-9378(00)70224-9 Goldberg, 1999, Nulliparas' preferences for epidural analgesia: their effects on actual use in labor, Birth, 26, 139, 10.1046/j.1523-536x.1999.00139.x Halpern, 1998, Effect of epidural vs parenteral opioid analgesia on the progress of labor: a meta-analysis, JAMA, 280, 2105, 10.1001/jama.280.24.2105 Robinson, 1999, Episiotomy, operative vaginal delivery, and significant perinatal trauma in nulliparous women, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 181, 1180, 10.1016/S0002-9378(99)70104-3 Hughes, 1999, Birth trauma in the head and neck, Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg, 125, 193, 10.1001/archotol.125.2.193 Gilbert, 1999, Associated factors in 1611 cases of brachial plexus injury, Obstet Gynecol, 93, 536, 10.1016/S0029-7844(98)00484-0 Levine, 1984, Birth trauma: incidence and predisposing factors, Obstet Gynecol, 63, 792 Gebremariam, 1999, Subgaleal haemorrhage: risk factors and neurological and developmental outcome in survivors, Ann Trop Paediatr, 19, 45, 10.1080/02724939992626 Chadwick, 1996, Neonatal subgaleal haematoma: associated risk factors, complications and outcome, J Paediatr Child Health, 32, 228, 10.1111/j.1440-1754.1996.tb01559.x Center for Devices and Radiological Health, 1998 Parazzini, 1994, Vaginal operative deliveries in Italy, Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand, 73, 698, 10.3109/00016349409029406 Walton, 1984, Epidural analgesia and instrumental delivery, Anaesthesia, 39, 218, 10.1111/j.1365-2044.1984.tb07230.x Robinson, 1999, Epidural analgesia and third- or fourth-degree lacerations in nulliparas, Obstet Gynecol, 94, 259, 10.1016/S0029-7844(99)00259-8 Paterson, 1992, The characteristics of the second stage of labour in 25,069 singleton deliveries in the North West Thames Health Region, 1988, Br J Obstet Gynaecol, 99, 377, 10.1111/j.1471-0528.1992.tb13752.x Kaminski, 1987, The effect of epidural analgesia on the frequency of instrumental obstetric delivery, Obstet Gynecol, 69, 770 Jouppila, 1983, Effect of segmental epidural analgesia on neonatal serum bilirubin concentration and incidence of neonatal hyperbilirubinemia, Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand, 62, 179, 10.3109/00016348309155787 Cox, 1987, Epidural anesthesia during labor and the incidence of forceps delivery, Texas Med, 83, 45 Schussman, 1982, Epidural anesthesia in low-risk obstetrical patients, J Fam Pract, 14, 851 Hawkins, 1995, A reevaluation of the association between instrument delivery and epidural analgesia, Reg Anesth, 20, 50 Robinson, 1996, Does station of the fetal head at epidural placement affect the position of the fetal vertex at delivery?, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 175, 991, 10.1016/S0002-9378(96)80039-1 Fusi, 1989, Maternal pyrexia associated with the use of epidural analgesia in labour, Lancet, 1, 1250, 10.1016/S0140-6736(89)92341-6 Camann, 1991, Maternal temperature regulation during extradural analgesia for labour, Br J Anaesth, 67, 565, 10.1093/bja/67.5.565 Mayer, 1997, Increased intrapartum antibiotic administration associated with epidural analgesia in labor, Am J Perinatol, 14, 83, 10.1055/s-2007-994103 Gonen, 2000, Association between epidural analgesia and intrapartum fever, Am J Perinatol, 17, 127, 10.1055/s-2000-9283 Philip, 1999, Epidural analgesia during labor and maternal fever, Anesthesiology, 90, 1271, 10.1097/00000542-199905000-00008 Vinson, 1993, Association between epidural analgesia during labor and fever, J Fam Pract, 36, 617 Macaulay, 1992, Epidural analgesia in labor and fetal hyperthermia, Obstet Gynecol, 80, 665 Herbst, 1995, Risk factors for fever in labor, Obstet Gynecol, 86, 790, 10.1016/0029-7844(95)00254-O Lieberman, 1997, Epidural analgesia, intrapartum fever, and neonatal sepsis evaluation, Pediatrics, 99, 415, 10.1542/peds.99.3.415 Mercier, 1997, Hyperthermia related to epidural analgesia during labor, Int J Obstet Anesth, 6, 19, 10.1016/S0959-289X(97)80047-7 Macaulay, 1992, Continuous monitoring of fetal temperature by noninvasive probe and its relationship to maternal temperature, fetal heart rate, and cord arterial oxygen and pH, Obstet Gynecol, 79, 469, 10.1097/00006250-199203000-00029 Newton, 2000, In the literature: epidural, intrapartum fever and neonatal outcome, Birth, 27, 206, 10.1046/j.1523-536x.2000.00206.x Lieberman, 1999, Maternal intrapartum temperature elevation as a risk factor for cesarean delivery and assisted vaginal delivery, Am J Public Health, 89, 506, 10.2105/AJPH.89.4.506 Gardberg, 1994, Persistent occiput posterior presentation—a clinical problem, Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand, 73, 45, 10.3109/00016349409013392 Gardberg, 1998, Intrapartum sonography and persistent occiput posterior position: a study of 408 deliveries, Obstet Gynecol, 91, 746, 10.1016/S0029-7844(98)00074-X Pearl, 1993, Vaginal delivery from the persistent occiput posterior position. Influence on maternal and neonatal morbidity, J Reprod Med, 38, 955 Sultan, 1994, Third degree obstetric anal sphincter tears: risk factors and outcome of primary repair, BMJ, 308, 887, 10.1136/bmj.308.6933.887 Haadem, 1997, Can women with intrapartum rupture of anal sphincter still suffer aftereffects two decades later?, Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand, 76, 601, 10.3109/00016349709024592 Ural, 2000, Fourth-degree lacerations and epidural anesthesia, Int J Gynaecol Obstet, 71, 231, 10.1016/S0020-7292(00)00343-X Legino, 1988, Third- and fourth-degree perineal tears: 50 year's experience at a university hospital, J Reprod Med, 33, 423 Combs, 1990, Risk factors for thirddegree and fourth-degree perineal lacerations in forceps and vacuum deliveries, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 163, 100, 10.1016/S0002-9378(11)90678-4 Spencer, 1991, Fetal heart rate and neonatal condition related to epidural analgesia in women reaching the second stage of labour, Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol, 41, 173, 10.1016/0028-2243(91)90020-L Newton, 1995, Epidural analgesia and uterine function, Obstet Gynecol, 85, 749, 10.1016/0029-7844(95)00046-T Bailey, 1994, Diamorphine-bupivacaine mixture compared with plain bupivacaine for analgesia, Br J Anaesth, 72, 58, 10.1093/bja/72.1.58 Chestnut, 1987, The influence of continuous epidural bupivacaine analgesia on the second stage of labor and method of delivery in nulliparous women, Anesthesiology, 66, 774, 10.1097/00000542-198706000-00011 Chestnut, 1990, Continuous epidural infusion of 0.0625% bupivacaine-0.0002% fentanyl during the second stage of labor, Anesthesiology, 72, 613, 10.1097/00000542-199004000-00006 Gambling, 1998, A randomized study of combined spinal-epidural analgesia versus intravenous meperidine during labor: impact on cesarean delivery rate, Anesthesiology, 89, 1336, 10.1097/00000542-199812000-00010 Lichtenstein, 1991, The influence of epidural blockade and pethidine administered during delivery on neonatal myocardial performance, Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand, 70, 315, 10.3109/00016349109007879 Lieberman, 1979, The effects of maternally administered pethidine or epidural bupivacaine on the fetus and newborn, Br J Obstet Gynaecol, 86, 598, 10.1111/j.1471-0528.1979.tb10820.x Maltau, 1980, Epidural analgesia and perinatal retinal haemorrhages, Acta Anaesth Scand, 24, 99, 10.1111/j.1399-6576.1980.tb01515.x Murray, 1981, Effects of epidural anesthesia on newborns and their mothers, Child Dev, 52, 71, 10.2307/1129216 Palmer, 1999, The incidence of fetal heart rate changes after intrathecal fentanyl labor analgesia, Anesth Analg, 88, 577, 10.1213/00000539-199903000-00021 Saunders, 1992, Neonatal and maternal morbidity in relation to the length of the second stage of labour, Br J Obstet Gynaecol, 99, 381, 10.1111/j.1471-0528.1992.tb13753.x Sepkoski, 1992, The effects of maternal epidural anesthesia on neonatal behavior during the first month, Dev Med Child Neurol, 34, 1072, 10.1111/j.1469-8749.1992.tb11419.x Wiener, 1979, Neonatal respiration, feeding and neurobehavioural state: effects of intrapartum bupivacaine, pethidine and pethidine reversed by naloxone, Anaesthesia, 34, 996, 10.1111/j.1365-2044.1979.tb06247.x Willdeck-Lund, 1979, Effect of segmental epidural analgesia upon the uterine activity with special reference to the use of different local anaesthetic agents, Acta Anaesth Scand, 23, 519, 10.1111/j.1399-6576.1979.tb01482.x Johnsrud, 1988, Benefits of continuous infusion epidural analgesia throughout vaginal delivery, Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand, 67, 355, 10.1111/j.1600-0412.1988.tb07814.x Luxman, 1996, Effect of second-stage 0.25% epidural bupivacaine on the outcome of labor, Gynecol Obstet Invest, 42, 167, 10.1159/000291940 Phillips, 1983, Second stage of labour with or without extradural analgesia, Anaesthesia, 38, 972, 10.1111/j.1365-2044.1983.tb12028.x Chestnut, 1987, Continuous infusion epidural analgesia with lidocaine: efficacy and influence during the second stage of labor, Obstet Gynecol, 69, 323 Chestnut, 1994, Does early administration of epidural analgesia affect obstetric outcome in nulliparous women who are receiving intravenous oxytocin?, Anesthesiology, 80, 1193, 10.1097/00000542-199406000-00005 Chestnut, 1994, Does early administration of epidural analgesia affect obstetric outcome in nulliparous women who are in spontaneous labor?, Anesthesiology, 80, 1201, 10.1097/00000542-199406000-00006 Rogers, 1999, Epidural analgesia and active management of labor: effects on length of labor and mode of delivery, Obstet Gynecol, 93, 995, 10.1016/S0029-7844(98)00564-X Sheiner, 1999, Does the station of the fetal head during epidural analgesia affect labor and delivery?, Int J Gynaecol Obstet, 64, 43, 10.1016/S0020-7292(98)00225-2 Chestnut, 1988, Continuous infusion epidural analgesia during labor: a randomized, double-blind comparison of 0.0625% bupivacaine/0.0002% fentanyl versus 0.125% bupivacaine, Anesthesiology, 68, 754, 10.1097/00000542-198805000-00013 Russell, 1996, Epidural infusion of low-dose bupivacaine and opioid in labour: does reducing motor block increase the spontaneous delivery rate?, Anaesthesia, 51, 266, 10.1111/j.1365-2044.1996.tb13645.x Lamont, 1989, Continuous versus intermittent epidural analgesia: a randomised trial to observe obstetric outcome, Anaesthesia, 44, 893, 10.1111/j.1365-2044.1989.tb09142.x Bogod, 1987, Extradural infusion of 0.125% bupivacaine at 10 mL h-1 to women during labour, Br J Anaesth, 59, 325, 10.1093/bja/59.3.325 Eddleston, 1992, Comparison of the maternal and fetal effects associated with intermittent or continuous infusion of extradural analgesia, Br J Anaesth, 69, 154, 10.1093/bja/69.2.154 Hicks, 1988, Continuous epidural infusion of 0.075% bupivacaine for pain relief in labour: a comparison with intermittent top-ups of 0.5% bupivacaine, Anaesthesia, 43, 289, 10.1111/j.1365-2044.1988.tb08975.x Quinn, 1993, A comparison of two epidural analgesic techniques with respect to the outcome of labour, J Obstet Gynaecol, 13, 171, 10.3109/01443619309151817 Smedstad, 1988, A comparative study of continuous and intermittent epidural analgesia for labour and delivery, Can J Anaesth, 35, 234, 10.1007/BF03010616 Tsen, 1999, Is combined spinal-epidural analgesia associated with more rapid cervical dilation in nulliparous patients when compared with conventional epidural analgesia?, Anesthesiology, 91, 920, 10.1097/00000542-199910000-00010 Dunn, 1998, Intrathecal sufentanil versus epidural lidocaine with epinephrine and sufentanil for early labor analgesia, Anesth Analg, 87, 331 Dresner, 1999, Comparison of low-dose epidural with combined spinal-epidural analgesia for labour, Br J Anaesth, 83, 756, 10.1093/bja/83.5.756 Kartawiadi, 1996, Spinal analgesia during labor with low-dose bupivacaine, sufentanil, and epinephrine: a comparison with epidural analgesia, Reg Anesth, 21, 191 Nageotte, 1997, Epidural analgesia compared with combined spinal-epidural analgesia during labor in nulliparous women, N Engl J Med, 337, 1715, 10.1056/NEJM199712113372402 Van de Velde, 1999, Prospective, randomized comparison of epidural and combined spinal epidural analgesia during labor, Acta Anaesthesiol Belg, 50, 129 Goetzl, 2001, Maternal epidural use and neonatal sepsis evaluation in afebrile mothers, Pediatrics, 108, 1099, 10.1542/peds.108.5.1099 Wood, 1979, Factors affecting neonatal jaundice, Arch Dis Child, 54, 111, 10.1136/adc.54.2.111 Sims, 1975, Factors affecting the increasing incidence of severe non-haemolytic neonatal jaundice, Br J Obstet Gynaecol, 82, 863, 10.1111/j.1471-0528.1975.tb00590.x Campbell, 1975, Increased frequency of neonatal jaundice in a maternity hospital, BMJ, 2, 548, 10.1136/bmj.2.5970.548 Chalmers, 1975, Use of oxytocin and incidence of neonatal jaundice, BMJ, 2, 116, 10.1136/bmj.2.5963.116 Gale, 1990, Epidemiology of neonatal jaundice in the Jerusalem population, J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr, 10, 82, 10.1097/00005176-199001000-00016 Van Zundert, 1986, Extradural analgesia and retinal haemorrhage in the newborn, Br J Anaesth, 58, 1017, 10.1093/bja/58.9.1017 Egge, 1981, Effect of instrumental delivery on the frequency and severity of retinal hemorrhages in the newborn, Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand, 60, 153 Kangas-Saarela, 1987, The effect of segmental epidural analgesia on the neurobehavioural responses of newborn infants, Acta Anaesthesiol Scand, 31, 347, 10.1111/j.1399-6576.1987.tb02581.x Abboud, 1984, Continuous infusion epidural analgesia in parturients receiving bupivacaine, chloroprocaine, or lidocaine—maternal, fetal, and neonatal effects, Anesth Analg, 63, 421, 10.1213/00000539-198404000-00008 Abboud, 1982, Maternal, fetal, and neonatal responses after epidural anesthesia with bupivacaine, 2-chloroprocaine, or lidocaine, Anesth Analg, 61, 638, 10.1213/00000539-198208000-00003 Abboud, 1983, Lack of adverse neonatal neurobehavioral effects of lidocaine, Anesth Analg, 62, 473, 10.1213/00000539-198305000-00003 Brazelton, 1973 Scanlon, 1974, Neurobehavioral responses of newborn infants after maternal epidural anesthesia, Anesthesiology, 40, 121, 10.1097/00000542-197402000-00005 Amiel-Tison, 1982, A new neurologic and adaptive capacity scoring system for evaluating obstetric medications in full-term newborns, Anesthesiology, 56, 340, 10.1097/00000542-198205000-00003 Kuhnert, 1985, Obstetric medication and neonatal behavior: current controversies, Clin Perinatol, 12, 423, 10.1016/S0095-5108(18)30875-3 Als, 1977, The Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (BNBAS), J Abnorm Child Psychol, 5, 215, 10.1007/BF00913693 Brockhurst, 2000, The Neurologic and Adaptive Capacity Score: a systematic review of its use in obstetric anesthesia research, Anesthesiology, 92, 237, 10.1097/00000542-200001000-00036 Camann, 2000, Use and abuse of neonatal neurobehavioral testing, Anesthesiology, 92, 3, 10.1097/00000542-200001000-00006 Lester, 1982, Regional obstetric anesthesia and newborn behavior: a reanalysis toward synergistic effects, Child Dev, 53, 687, 10.2307/1129381 Cohler, 1975, Maternal Attitude Scale Kiehl, 1996, Social status, mother-infant time together, and breast-feeding duration, J Hum Lact, 12, 201, 10.1177/089033449601200317 Halpern, 1999, Effect of labor analgesia on breast-feeding success, Birth, 26, 83, 10.1046/j.1523-536x.1999.00083.x Morishima, 1975, Increased uterine activity and fetal deterioration during maternal hyperthermia, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 121, 531, 10.1016/0002-9378(75)90087-3 Minamisawa, 1990, The effect of mild hyperthermia and hypothermia on brain damage following 5, 10, and 15 minutes of forebrain ischemia, Ann Neurol, 28, 26, 10.1002/ana.410280107 Wass, 1995, Temperature changes of ≥1 C alter functional neurologic outcome and histopathology in a canine model of complete cerebral ischemia, Anesthesiology, 83, 325, 10.1097/00000542-199508000-00013 Dietrich, 1990, Effects of normothermic versus mild hyperthermic forebrain ischemia in rats, Stroke, 21, 1318, 10.1161/01.STR.21.9.1318 Reith, 1996, Body temperature in acute stroke: relation to stroke severity, infarct size, mortality, and outcome, Lancet, 347, 422, 10.1016/S0140-6736(96)90008-2 Morishima, 1977, Temperature gradient between fetus and mother as an index for assessing intrauterine fetal condition, Am J Obstet Gynecol, 129, 443, 10.1016/0002-9378(77)90592-0 Wood, 1964, Temperature of the human foetus, J Obstet Gynaecol Br Commonw, 71, 768, 10.1111/j.1471-0528.1964.tb04355.x Adamsons, 1965, Theraml homeostasis in the fetus and newborn, Anesthesiology, 26, 531, 10.1097/00000542-196507000-00017 Abrams, 1969, Fetal brain-maternal aorta temperature differences in sheep, Am J Physiol, 217, 1619, 10.1152/ajplegacy.1969.217.6.1619 Walker, 1969, Temperature of the human fetus, J Obstet Gynaecol Br Commonw, 76, 503, 10.1111/j.1471-0528.1969.tb05870.x Lieberman, 2000, Intrapartum maternal fever and neonatal outcome, Pediatrics, 105, 8, 10.1542/peds.105.1.8 Lieberman, 2000, Intrapartum fever and unexplained seizures in term infants, Pediatrics, 106, 983, 10.1542/peds.106.5.983 Freeman, 1985 Adamson, 1995, Predictors of neonatal encephalopathy in full-term infants, BMJ, 311, 598, 10.1136/bmj.311.7005.598 Grether, 1997, Maternal infection and cerebral palsy in infants of normal birth weight, JAMA, 278, 207, 10.1001/jama.1997.03550030047032 Saper, 1994, The neurologic basis of fever, N Engl J Med, 330, 1880, 10.1056/NEJM199406303302609 St George, 1990, Immediate postpartum complications, Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol, 30, 52, 10.1111/j.1479-828X.1990.tb03196.x Weil, 1983, Effect of lumbar epidural analgesia on lower urinary tract function in the immediate postpartum period, Br J Obstet Gynaecol, 90, 428, 10.1111/j.1471-0528.1983.tb08938.x Katz, 1980, Complications of spinal and epidural anesthesia, J Bone Joint Surg, 62, 1219, 10.2106/00004623-198062070-00033 Kermans, 1986, Puerperal urinary retention, Acta Urol Belg, 54, 376 Olofsson, 1997, Post-partum urinary retention: a comparison between two methods of epidural analgesia, Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol, 71, 31, 10.1016/S0301-2115(96)02610-3 Andolf, 1994, Insidious urinary retention after vaginal delivery: prevalence and symptoms at follow-up in a population-based study, Gynecol Obstet Invest, 38, 51, 10.1159/000292445 Weissman, 1995, Postpartum surveillance of urinary retention by ultrasonography: the effect of epidural analgesia, Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol, 6, 130, 10.1046/j.1469-0705.1995.06020130.x Ramsay, 1993, Incidence of abnormal voiding parameters in the immediate postpartum period, Neurourol Urodyn, 12, 179, 10.1002/nau.1930120212 Dimpfl, 1992, Incidence and cause of postpartum urinary stress incontinence, Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol, 43, 29, 10.1016/0028-2243(92)90239-U Viktrup, 1993, Epidural anesthesia during labor and stress incontinence after delivery, Obstet Gynecol, 82, 984 Breen, 1994, Factors associated with back pain after childbirth, Anesthesiology, 81, 29, 10.1097/00000542-199407000-00006 Macarthur, 1995, Epidural anaesthesia and low back pain after delivery: a prospective cohort study, BMJ, 311, 1336, 10.1136/bmj.311.7016.1336 Macarthur, 1997, Is epidural anesthesia in labor associated with chronic low back pain? A prospective cohort study, Anesth Analg, 85, 1066, 10.1213/00000539-199711000-00019 MacArthur, 1992, Investigation of long term problems after obstetric epidural anaesthesia, BMJ, 304, 1279, 10.1136/bmj.304.6837.1279 MacArthur, 1990, Epidural anaesthesia and long term backache after childbirth, BMJ, 301, 9, 10.1136/bmj.301.6742.9 Russell, 1993, Assessing long term backache after childbirth, BMJ, 306, 1299, 10.1136/bmj.306.6888.1299 Kitzinger, 1987 Lieberman, 1997, Predictors of Cesarean Delivery, Curr Probl Obstet Gynecol Fertil, 20, 93 Beilin, 2000, The effect of the obstetrician group and epidural analgesia on the risk for cesarean delivery in nulliparous women, Acta Anaesthesiol Scand, 44, 959, 10.1034/j.1399-6576.2000.440811.x Samuelsson, 2000, Anal sphincter tears: prospective study of obstetric risk factors, Br J Obstet Gynaecol, 107, 926, 10.1111/j.1471-0528.2000.tb11093.x Holt, 1999, Station and cervical dilation at epidural placement in predicting cesarean risk, Obstet Gynecol, 93, 281, 10.1016/S0029-7844(98)00370-6