Risk Factors for Autism: Perinatal Factors, Parental Psychiatric History, and Socioeconomic Status

Gillberg C, Wing L. Autism: not an extremely rare disorder. Acta Psychiatr Scand1999;99:399–406.

Fombonne E. The epidemiology of autism: a review. Psychol Med1999;29:769–86.

Yeargin-Allsopp M, Rice C, Karapurkar T, et al. Prevalence of autism in a US metropolitan area. JAMA2003;289:49–55.

Croen L, Grether J, Hoogstrate J, et al. The changing prevalence of autism in California. J Autism Dev Disord2002;32:207–15.

Chakrabarti S, Fombonne E. Pervasive developmental disorder in preschool children. JAMA2001;285:3093–9.

Bertrand J, Mars A, Boyle C, et al. Prevalence of autism in a United States population: the Brick Township, New Jersey, investigation. Pediatrics2001;108:1155–61.

Lauritsen MB, Ewald H. The genetics of autism. Acta Psychiatr Scand2001;103:411–27.

Rodier PM, Ingram JL, Tisdale B, et al. Embryological origin for autism: developmental anomalies of the cranial nerve motor nuclei. J Comp Neurol1996;370:247–61.

Strömland K, Nordin V, Miller M, et al. Autism in thalidomide embryopathy: a population study. Dev Med Child Neurol1994;36:351–6.

Deykin EY, MacMahon B. Viral exposure and autism. Am J Epidemiol1979;109:628–38.

Aronson M, Hagberg B, Gillberg C. Attention deficits and autism spectrum problems in children exposed to alcohol during gestation: a follow-up study. Dev Med Child Neurol1997;39:558–83.

Bolton PF, Murphy M, MacDonald H, et al. Obstetric complications in autism: consequences or causes of the condition? J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry1997;36:272–81.

Bryson SE, Smith IM, Eastwood D. Obstetric suboptimality in autistic children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry1988;27:418–42.

Deykin EY, MacMahon B. Pregnancy, delivery, and neonatal complications among autistic children. Am J Dis Child1980;134:860–4.

Finegan JA, Quarrington B. Pre-, peri-, and neonatal factors and infantile autism. J Child Psychol Psychiatry1979;20:119–28.

Burd L, Severud R, Kerbeshian J, et al. Prenatal and perinatal risk factors for autism. J Perinat Med1999;27:441–50.

Piven J, Simon J, Chase GA, et al. The etiology of autism: pre-, peri- and neonatal factors. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry1993;32:1256–63.

Hultman CM, Sparén P, Cnattingius S. Perinatal risk factors for infantile autism. Epidemiology2002;13:417–43.

Eaton WW, Mortensen PB, Thomsen PH, et al. Obstetric complications and risk for severe psychopathology in childhood. J Autism Dev Disord2001;31:279–85.

Juul-Dam N, Townsend J, Courchesne E. Prenatal, perinatal, and neonatal factors in autism, pervasive development disorder-not otherwise specified, and the general population. Pediatrics2001;107:E63.

Mason-Brothers A, Ritvo ER, Pingree C, et al. The UCLA-University of Utah epidemiologic survey of autism: prenatal, perinatal and postnatal factors. Pediatrics1990;86:514–19.

Wolff S, Narayan S, Moyes B. Personality characteristics of parents of autistic children: a controlled study. J Child Psychol Psychiatry1988;29:143–53.

Bennedsen BE, Mortensen PB, Olesen AV, et al. Preterm birth and intra-uterine growth retardation among children of women with schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry1999;175:239–45.

Bennedsen BE. Adverse pregnancy outcome in schizophrenic women: occurrence and risk factors. Schizophr Res1998;33:1–26.

Munk-Jørgensen P, Mortensen PB. The Danish Psychiatric Central Register. Dan Med Bull1997;44:82–4.

Knudsen LB, Olsen J. The Danish Medical Birth Registry. Dan Med Bul1998;45:320–32.

Statistics Denmark. IDA —an integrated database for labor market research. (In Danish). 1991. (http://www.dst.dk/) (under IDA (Integreret Database for Arbejdsmarkedsforskning)).

Madsen KM, Hviid A, Vestergaard M, et al. A population-based study of measles, mumps, and rubella vaccination and autism. N Engl J Med2002;347:1477–82.

Borgan O, Goldstein L, Langholz B. Methods for the analysis of sampled cohort data in the Cox proportional hazards model. Ann Stat1995;23:1749–78.

Madsen KM, Lauritsen MB, Pedersen CB, et al. Thimerosal and the occurrence of autism: negative ecological evidence from Danish population-based data. Pediatrics2003;112:604–6.

Powell JE, Edwards A, Edwards M, et al. Changes in the incidence of childhood autism and other autistic spectrum disorders in preschool children from two areas of the West Midlands. Dev Med Child Neurol2000;42:624–8.

Kaye JA, Mar Melero-Montes M, Jick H. Mumps, measles, and rubella vaccine and the incidence of autism recorded by general practitioners: a time trend analysis. BMJ2001;322:460–3.

Wilcox AJ. On the importance—and the unimportance—of birthweight. Int J Epidemiol2001;30:1233–41.

Deykin EY, MacMahon B. Pregnancy, delivery, and neonatal complications among autistic children. Am J Dis Child1980;134:860–4.

Lord C, Mulloy C, Wendelboe M, et al. Pre- and perinatal factors in high-functioning females and males with autism. J Autism Dev Disord1991;21:197–209.

Wolf S. Loners. The life path of unusual children. London, United Kingdom: Routledge, 1995.

Gottesman II. Schizophrenia genesis. The origin of madness. New York, NY: W H Freeman, 1991.

Fish B, Marcus J, Hans SL, et al. Infants at risk for schizophrenia: sequelae of a genetic neurointegrative defect. A review and replication analysis of pandysmaturation in the Jerusalem Infant Development Study. Arch Gen Psychiatry1992;49:221–35.

Crow JF. The origins, patterns and implications of human spontaneous mutation. Nat Genet2000;1:40–7.

Brooke OG, Anderson HR, Bland JM, et al. Effects on birth weight of smoking, alcohol, caffeine, socioeconomic factors, and psychosocial stress. BMJ1989;25:795–801.

Xiao R, Sorensen TK, Williams MA, et al. Influence of pre-eclampsia on fetal growth. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med2003;13:157–62.

Fergusson DM, Horwood LJ, Lynskey MT. Maternal smoking before and after pregnancy: effects on behavioral outcomes in middle childhood. Pediatrics1993;92:815–22.