Identification of hydrogeochemical processes controlling groundwater quality in Tripura, Northeast India using evaluation indices, GIS, and multivariate statistical methods

APHA (2005) Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 21st edn. American Health Public Association, WWA, Washington, DC Backman B, Bodiš D, Lahermo P, Rapant S, Tarvainen T (1998) Application of a groundwater contamination index in Finland and Slovakia. Environ Geol 36:55–64 Banerjee S, Das B, Umlong IM, Devi RR, Kalita H, Saikia LB, Borah K, Raul PK, Singh L (2011) Heavy metal contaminants of underground water in Indo Bangla border districts of Tripura, India. Int J Chem Tech Res 3:516–522 BIS (2012) Indian standard drinking water specification. Second Revision ISO: 10500:2012, Bureau of Indian Standards, Drinking Water Sectional Committee, FAD 25. BIS, New Delhi Bouzourra H, Bouhlila R, Elango L, Slama F, Ouslati N (2015) Characterization of mechanisms and processes of groundwater salinization in irrigated coastal area using statistics, GIS, and hydrogeochemical investigations. Environ Sci Pollut Res 22:2643–2660 Brahma J, Sircar A, Karmakar GP (2013) Hydrocarbon prospectivity in central part of Tripura, India, using an integrated approach. J Geogr Geol 5:116–134 Brindha K, Elango L (2015) Cross comparison of five popular groundwater pollution vulnerability index approaches. J Hydrol 524:597–613 Brindha K, Neena Vaman KV, Srinivasan K, Sathis Babu M, Elango L (2013) Identification of surface water-groundwater interaction by hydrogeochemical indicators and assessing its suitability for drinking and irrigational purposes in Chennai, Southern India. Appl Water Sci 4:159–174 Brindha K, Pavelic P, Sotoukee T, Douangsavanh S, Elango L (2016) Geochemical Characteristics and Groundwater Quality in the Vientiane Plain, Laos. Expos Health 9:89–104 Census of India (2011) Population of India. http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-Common/CensusData2011.html. Accessed 17 Jan 2019 CGWB (2012a) Ground Water Information Booklet North Tripura District, Tripura. Central Ground Water Board, North Eastern Region, Ministry of Water Resources, Guwahati, p 16 CGWB (2012b) Ground Water Information Booklet South Tripura District, Tripura. Central Ground Water Board, North Eastern Region, Ministry of Water Resources, Guwahati, p 18 CGWB (2016) Ground Water Year Book, North Eastern Region. Central Ground Water Board, North Eastern Region, Ministry of Water Resources, Guwahati, p 112 Chakraborti D, Rahman MM, Mukherjee A, Alauddin M, Hassan M, Dutta RN, Pati S, Mukherjee SC, Roy S, Quamruzzman Q, Rahman M, Morshed S, Islam T, Sorif S, Selim M, Islam MR, Hossain MM (2015) Groundwater arsenic contamination in Bangladesh—21 Years of research. J Trace Elem Med Biol 31:237–248 Chakraborty K, Sudhakar S, Sarma KK, Raju PLN, Das AK (2018) Recognizing the rapid expansion of rubber plantation—a threat to native forest in parts of northeast India. Curr Sci 114:207–213 Christensen TH, Bjerg PL, Banwart SA, Jakobsen R, Heron G, Albrechtsen H-J (2000) Characterization of redox conditions in groundwater contaminant plumes. J Contam Hydrol 45:165–241 Das N, Deka JP, Shim J, Patel AK, Kumar A, Sarma KP, Kumar M (2016) Effect of river proximity on the arsenic and fluoride distribution in the aquifers of the Brahmaputra Floodplains, Assam, Northeast India. Groundw Sustain Dev 2–3:130–142 Di Curzio D, Palmucci W, Rusi S, Signanini P (2016) Evaluation of processes controlling Fe and Mn contamination in the San Pedro Sula porous aquifer (North Western Honduras). Rend Online Soc Geol It 41:42–45 Döll P, Müller Schmied H, Schuh C, Portmann FT, Eicker A (2014) Global-scale assessment of groundwater depletion and related groundwater abstractions: combining hydrological modeling with information from well observations and GRACE satellites. Water Resour Res 50:5698–5720 Donohue S, McCarthy V, Rafferty P, Orr A, Flynn R (2015) Geophysical and hydrogeological characterisation of the impacts of on-site wastewater treatment discharge to groundwater in a poorly productive bedrock aquifer. Sci Total Environ 523:109–119 Drever JI (1988) The geochemistry of natural waters, 2nd edn. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, p 437 Edet AE, Offiong OE (2002) Evaluation of water quality pollution indices for heavy metal contamination monitoring. A study case from Akpabuyo-Odukpani area, Lower Cross River Basin (southeastern Nigeria). GeoJournal 57:295–304 Elango L, Brindha K, Kalpana L, Sunny F, Nair RN, Murugan R (2012) Groundwater flow and radionuclide decay-chain transport modelling around a proposed uranium tailings pond in India. Hydrogeol J 20:797–812 Elumalai V, Brindha K, Sithole B, Lakshmanan E (2017) Spatial interpolation methods and geostatistics for mapping groundwater contamination in a coastal area. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24:11601–11617 Ficklin WH, Plumlee GS, Smith KS, McHugh JB (1992) Geo-chemical classification of mine drainages and natural drainages in mineralized areas. In: Kharaka YK, Maest AS (eds) Water–rock interaction: seventh international symposium on water–rock interaction. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 381–384 Ghosh S, Sar P (2013) Identification and characterization of metabolic properties of bacterial populations recovered from arsenic contaminated ground water of North East India (Assam). Water Res 47:6992–7005 Gibbs RJ (1970) Mechanisms controlling world water chemistry. Science 170 Gong G, Mattevada S, O’Bryant SE (2014) Comparison of the accuracy of kriging and IDW interpolations in estimating groundwater arsenic concentrations in Texas. Environ Res 130:59–69 Gowrisankar G, Chelliah R, Ramakrishnan SR, Elumalai V, Dhanamadhavan S, Brindha K, Antony U, Elango L (2017) Chemical, microbial and antibiotic susceptibility analyses of groundwater after a major flood event in Chennai. Nat Sci Data 4:170135 GSI (2011) Geology and mineral resources of Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura. Geological Society of India, Government of India, Bangalore Henderson T (1985) Geochemistry of groundwater in two sandstone aquifer systems in the Northern Great Plains in parts of Montana and Wyoming. Regional aquifer-system analysis, US Geological Survey professional paper; 1402-C, pp C69–C72 Hossain MF (2006) Arsenic contamination in Bangladesh—An overview. Agr Ecosyst Environ 113:1–16 ICMR (2009) Nutrient requirements and recommended dietary allowances for Indians. A report of the expert group of the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), Hyderabad, India, p 334 Jahanshahi R, Zare M (2015) Assessment of heavy metals pollution in groundwater of Golgohar iron ore mine area, Iran. Environ Earth Sci 74:505–520 Karroum M, Elgettafi M, Elmandour A, Wilske C, Himi M, Casas A (2017) Geochemical processes controlling groundwater quality under semi arid environment: a case study in central Morocco. Sci Total Environ 609:1140–1151 Kshetrimayum KS, Hegeu H (2016) The state of toxicity and cause of elevated Iron and Manganese concentrations in surface water and groundwater around Naga Thrust of Assam-Arakan basin, Northeastern India. Environ Earth Sci 75:604 Kumar M, Das A, Das N, Goswami R, Singh UK (2016) Co-occurrence perspective of arsenic and fluoride in the groundwater of Diphu, Assam, Northeastern India. Chemosphere 150:227–238 Liao Q, Deng Y, Shi X, Sun Y, Duan W, Wu J (2018) Delineation of contaminant plume for an inorganic contaminated site using electrical resistivity tomography: comparison with direct-push technique. Environ Monit Assess 190:187 Machiwal D, Jha MK (2015) Identifying sources of groundwater contamination in a hard-rock aquifer system using multivariate statistical analyses and GIS-based geostatistical modeling techniques. J Hydrol Region Stud 4:80–110 Magesh NS, Chandrasekar N, Elango L (2017) Trace element concentrations in the groundwater of the Tamiraparani river basin, South India: insights from human health risk and multivariate statistical techniques. Chemosphere 185:468–479 Mahanta C (2006) Water resources of the Northeast: state of the knowledge base. Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati, p 22 Mahanta C, Enmark G, Nordborg D, Sracek O, Nath B, Nickson RT, Herbert R, Jacks G, Mukherjee A, Ramanathan AL, Choudhury R, Bhattacharya P (2015) Hydrogeochemical controls on mobilization of arsenic in groundwater of a part of Brahmaputra river floodplain, India. J Hydrol Region Stud 4:154–171 McMahon PB, Chapelle FH (2008) Redox processes and water quality of selected principal aquifer systems. Ground Water 46:259–271 Mohan SV, Nithila P, Reddy SJ (1996) Estimation of heavy metals in drinking water and development of heavy metal pollution index. J Environ Sci Health Part A Environ Sci Eng Toxicol 31:283–289 Mokadem N, Boughariou E, Mudarra M, Ben Brahim F, Andreo B, Hamed Y, Bouri S (2018) Mapping potential zones for groundwater recharge and its evaluation in arid environments using a GIS approach: case study of North Gafsa Basin (Central Tunisia). J Afr Earth Sc 141:107–117 Moore DS, Notz W, Fligner MA (2013) The basic practice of statistics, 6th edn. W. H. Freeman and Company, New York, p 754 Nandy DR, Dasgupta S, Sarkar K, Gang A (1983) Tectonic evolution of Tripura–Mizoram fold belt, Surma Basin, Northeast India. Q J Geol Min Met Soc India 55:186–194 Oinam JD, Ramanathan AL, Singh G (2012) Geochemical and statistical evaluation of groundwater in Imphal and Thoubal district of Manipur, India. J Asian Earth Sci 48:136–149 Palmucci W, Rusi S, Di Curzio D (2016) Mobilisation processes responsible for iron and manganese contamination of groundwater in Central Adriatic Italy. Environ Sci Pollut Res 23:11790–11805 Paul R, Das S, Nag SK, Singh MK (2016) Deciphering groundwater quality for drinking and irrigation purposes—a study in Lefunga block of West Tripura district, Tripura, India. J Earth Sci Clim Change 7:1000378 Planning Commission (2011) Report of the working group on rural domestic water and sanitation, Twelfth five year plan—2012–2017. Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation, Government of India, New Delhi, p 220 Rajesh R, Brindha K, Murugan R, Elango L (2011) Influence of hydrogeochemical processes on temporal changes in groundwater quality in a part of Nalgonda district, Andhra Pradesh, India. Environ Earth Sci 65:1203–1213 Rajmohan N, Elango L (2004) Identification and evolution of hydrogeochemical processes in the groundwater environment in an area of the Palar and Cheyyar River Basins, Southern India. Environ Geol 46:47–61 Rodell M, Velicogna I, Famiglietti JS (2009) Satellite-based estimates of groundwater depletion in India. Nature 460:999–1002 SENES Consultants India Pvt. Ltd. (2015) EIA for BMDE Development well in Baramura Field, Tripura, p 172 Sharma UC, Sharma V (2011) Managing socio-economic and hydrological risks in northeast India. Risk in water resources management, vol 347. IAHS Publications, Melbourne Shepard D (1968) A two-dimensional interpolation function for irregularly-spaced data. In: Proceedings of the 1968 ACM national conference, pp 517–524 Singh AK, Kumar SR (2015) Quality assessment of groundwater for drinking and irrigation use in semi-urban area of Tripura, India. Ecol Environ Conserv 21:97–198 Tamasi G, Cini R (2004) Heavy metals in drinking waters from Mount Amiata (Tuscany, Italy). Possible risks from arsenic for public health in the Province of Siena. Sci Total Environ 327:41–51 UNDESA (2013) World Population Prospects. Population Division Database. Detailed indicators 2012 Revision. United Nations Department of Economic and Social AffairsNew York, Washington DC UNESCO (1984) Ground water in hard rocks. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris, p 217 U.S.EPA (1989) Risk assessment guidance for superfund, volume 1: human health evaluation manual (part A). United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Emergency and Remedial Response, Washington DC U.S.EPA (2011) Exposure Factors Handbook: 2011 Edition. Environmental Protection Agency, National Center for Environmental Assessment, Washington, DC Wada Y, van Beek LPH, van Kempen CM, Reckman JWTM, Vasak S, Bierkens MFP (2010) Global depletion of groundwater resources. Geophys Res Lett 37:L20402 World Bank (2010) Deep wells and prudence: towards pragmatic action for addressing groundwater overexploitation in India, p 97 Yihdego Y, Al-Weshah RA (2017) Assessment and prediction of saline sea water transport in groundwater using 3-D numerical modelling. Environ Processes 4:49–73 Zikmund WG (2000) Business research methods, 6th edn. Thomson/South-Western Publishers, Mason, p 742