Beyond infection - Maternal immune activation by environmental factors, microglial development, and relevance for autism spectrum disorders

Experimental Neurology - Tập 299 - Trang 241-251 - 2018
Staci D. Bilbo1, Carina L. Block2, Jessica L. Bolton3, Richa Hanamsagar1, Phuong K. Tran1
1Pediatrics and Neuroscience, Harvard Medical School, Lurie Center for Autism, Massachusetts General Hospital for Children, Boston, MA 02126, United States
2Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, United States
3Pediatrics and Anatomy/Neurobiology, University of California-Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, United States

Tài liệu tham khảo

Ashwood, 2004, A review of autism and the immune response, Clin. Dev. Immunol., 11, 165, 10.1080/10446670410001722096 Ashwood, 2006, Immune activation of peripheral blood and mucosal CD3+ lymphocyte cytokine profiles in children with autism and gastrointestinal symptoms, J. Neuroimmunol., 173, 126, 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2005.12.007 Ashwood, 2006, The immune response in autism: a new frontier for autism research, J. Leukoc. Biol., 80, 1, 10.1189/jlb.1205707 Atladottir, 2010, Association of hospitalization for infection in childhood with diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders: a Danish cohort study, Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med., 164, 470, 10.1001/archpediatrics.2010.9 Batinic, 2016, Lipopolysaccharide exposure during late embryogenesis results in diminished locomotor activity and amphetamine response in females and spatial cognition impairment in males in adult, but not adolescent rat offspring, Behav. Brain Res., 299, 72, 10.1016/j.bbr.2015.11.025 Bauman, 2013, Maternal antibodies from mothers of children with autism alter brain growth and social behavior development in the rhesus monkey, Transl. Psychiatry, 3, 10.1038/tp.2013.47 Bauman, 2014, Activation of the maternal immune system during pregnancy alters behavioral development of rhesus monkey offspring, Biol. Psychiatry, 75, 332, 10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.06.025 Becker, 2007, Autism, asthma, inflammation, and the hygiene hypothesis, Med. Hypotheses, 69, 731, 10.1016/j.mehy.2007.02.019 Bianchi, 2007, DAMPs, PAMPs and alarmins: all we need to know about danger, J. Leukoc. Biol., 81, 1, 10.1189/jlb.0306164 Bianchi, 2009, Immunology. Dangers in and out, Science, 323, 1683, 10.1126/science.1172794 Bilbo, 2009, Early-life programming of later-life brain and behavior: a critical role for the immune system, Front. Behav. Neurosci., 3, 1, 10.3389/neuro.08.014.2009 Bilbo, 2012, The immune system and developmental programming of brain and behavior, Front. Neuroendocrinol., 33, 267, 10.1016/j.yfrne.2012.08.006 Bilbo, 2010, Enduring consequences of maternal obesity for brain inflammation and behavior of offspring, FASEB J., 24, 2104, 10.1096/fj.09-144014 Bilbo, 2005, Neonatal infection-induced memory impairment after lipopolysaccharide in adulthood is prevented via caspase-1 inhibition, J. Neurosci., 25, 8000, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1748-05.2005 Bilbo, 2005, Neonatal infection induces memory impairments following an immune challenge in adulthood, Behav. Neurosci., 119, 293, 10.1037/0735-7044.119.1.293 Bilbo, 2008, Early-life infection leads to altered BDNF and IL-1beta mRNA expression in rat hippocampus following learning in adulthood, Brain Behav. Immun., 22, 451, 10.1016/j.bbi.2007.10.003 Bilbo, 2012, A lifespan approach to neuroinflammatory and cognitive disorders: a critical role for glia, Journal of neuroimmune pharmacology : the official journal of the Society on NeuroImmune Pharmacology, 7, 24, 10.1007/s11481-011-9299-y Birtwell, 2016, Social, cognitive, and behavioral development of children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder (Chapter 2), 19 Blaylock, 2009, A possible central mechanism in autism spectrum disorders, part 2: immunoexcitotoxicity, Altern. Ther. Health Med., 15, 60 Blaylock, 2009, Immune-glutamatergic dysfunction as a central mechanism of the autism spectrum disorders, Curr. Med. Chem., 16, 157, 10.2174/092986709787002745 Block, 2009, Air pollution: mechanisms of neuroinflammation and CNS disease, Trends Neurosci., 32, 506, 10.1016/j.tins.2009.05.009 Block, 2009 Block, 2007, Microglia-mediated neurotoxicity: uncovering the molecular mechanisms, Nat. Rev. Neurosci., 8, 57, 10.1038/nrn2038 Block, 2012, The outdoor air pollution and brain health workshop, Neurotoxicology, 33, 972, 10.1016/j.neuro.2012.08.014 Bolton, 2012, Prenatal air pollution exposure induces neuroinflammation and predisposes offspring to weight gain in adulthood in a sex-specific manner, FASEB J., 26, 4743, 10.1096/fj.12-210989 Bolton, 2013, Maternal stress and effects of prenatal air pollution on offspring mental health outcomes in mice, Environ. Health Perspect., 121, 1075, 10.1289/ehp.1306560 Bolton, 2014, Prenatal air pollution exposure induces sexually dimorphic fetal programming of metabolic and neuroinflammatory outcomes in adult offspring, Brain Behav. Immun., 37, 30, 10.1016/j.bbi.2013.10.029 Bolton, 2017, Gestational exposure to air pollution alters cortical volume, microglial morphology, and microglia-neuron interactions in a sex-specific manner, Front. Synaptic Neurosci., 9, 10, 10.3389/fnsyn.2017.00010 Borrell, 2002, Prenatal immune challenge disrupts sensorimotor gating in adult rats. Implications for the etiopathogenesis of schizophrenia, Neuropsychopharmacology, 26, 204, 10.1016/S0893-133X(01)00360-8 Braunschweig, 2012, Maternal autism-associated IgG antibodies delay development and produce anxiety in a mouse gestational transfer model, J. Neuroimmunol., 252, 56, 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2012.08.002 Brimberg, 2016, Caspr2-reactive antibody cloned from a mother of an ASD child mediates an ASD-like phenotype in mice, Mol. Psychiatry, 21, 1663, 10.1038/mp.2016.165 Brown, 2012, Epidemiologic studies of exposure to prenatal infection and risk of schizophrenia and autism, Dev. Neurobiol., 72, 1272, 10.1002/dneu.22024 Busillo, 2013, The five Rs of glucocorticoid action during inflammation: ready, reinforce, repress, resolve, and restore, Trends Endocrinol. Metab., 24, 109, 10.1016/j.tem.2012.11.005 Cai, 2000, Cytokine induction in fetal rat brains and brain injury in neonatal rats after maternal lipopolysaccharide administration, Pediatr. Res., 47, 64, 10.1203/00006450-200001000-00013 Canetta, 2012, Prenatal infection, maternal immune activation, and risk for schizophrenia, Transl. Neurosci., 3, 320, 10.2478/s13380-012-0045-6 Careaga, 2013, Increased anti-phospholipid antibodies in autism spectrum disorders, Mediat. Inflamm., 2013, 935608, 10.1155/2013/935608 Carter, 2016, Autism genes are selectively targeted by environmental pollutants including pesticides, heavy metals, bisphenol A, phthalates and many others in food, cosmetics or household products, Neurochem Int., 10.1016/j.neuint.2016.10.011 Case, 2005, The lasting impact of childhood health and circumstance, J. Health Econ., 24, 365, 10.1016/j.jhealeco.2004.09.008 Chan, 2007, The origin and cell lineage of microglia: new concepts, Brain Res. Rev., 53, 344, 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2006.11.002 Comi, 1999, Familial clustering of autoimmune disorders and evaluation of medical risk factors in autism, J. Child Neurol., 14, 388, 10.1177/088307389901400608 Corriveau, 1998, Regulation of class I MHC gene expression in the developing and mature CNS by neural activity, Neuron, 21, 505, 10.1016/S0896-6273(00)80562-0 Costa, 2017, Neurotoxicity of traffic-related air pollution, Neurotoxicology, 59, 133, 10.1016/j.neuro.2015.11.008 Clougherty, 2007, Synergistic effects of traffic-related air pollution and exposure to violence on urban asthma etiology, Environ. Health Perspect., 115, 1140, 10.1289/ehp.9863 Cuadros, 1998, The origin and differentiation of microglial cells during development, Prog. Neurobiol., 56, 173, 10.1016/S0301-0082(98)00035-5 Cunningham, 2009, Systemic inflammation induces acute behavioral and cognitive changes and accelerates neurodegenerative disease, Biol. Psychiatry, 65, 304, 10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.07.024 Dalton, 2003, Maternal neuronal antibodies associated with autism and a language disorder, Ann. Neurol., 53, 533, 10.1002/ana.10557 DeLong, 1992, Autism, amnesia, hippocampus, and learning, Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 16, 63, 10.1016/S0149-7634(05)80052-1 Derecki, 2010, Rett syndrome and other autism spectrum disorders-brain diseases of immune malfunction?, Mol. Psychiatry, 15, 355, 10.1038/mp.2010.21 Deverman, 2009, Cytokines and CNS development, Neuron, 64, 61, 10.1016/j.neuron.2009.09.002 Elmore, 2014, Colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor signaling is necessary for microglia viability, unmasking a microglia progenitor cell in the adult brain, Neuron, 82, 380, 10.1016/j.neuron.2014.02.040 Enstrom, 2010, Differential monocyte responses to TLR ligands in children with autism spectrum disorders, Brain Behav. Immun., 24, 64, 10.1016/j.bbi.2009.08.001 Fernandez de Cossio, 2017, Prenatal infection leads to ASD-like behavior and altered synaptic pruning in the mouse offspring, Brain Behav. Immun., 63, 88, 10.1016/j.bbi.2016.09.028 Fidel, 1994, Systemic and local cytokine profiles in endotoxin-induced preterm parturition in mice, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 170, 1467, 10.1016/S0002-9378(94)70180-6 Foley, 2015, Sexually dimorphic effects of prenatal exposure to lipopolysaccharide, and prenatal and postnatal exposure to propionic acid, on acoustic startle response and prepulse inhibition in adolescent rats: relevance to autism spectrum disorders, Behav. Brain Res., 278, 244, 10.1016/j.bbr.2014.09.032 Fox-Edmiston, 2015, Maternal anti-fetal brain IgG autoantibodies and autism spectrum disorder: Current knowledge and its implications for potential therapeutics, CNS Drugs, 29, 715, 10.1007/s40263-015-0279-2 Frank, 2016, Stress-induced neuroinflammatory priming: a liability factor in the etiology of psychiatric disorders, Neurobiol. Stress, 4, 62, 10.1016/j.ynstr.2015.12.004 Fujita, 1981, Origin, morphology and function of the microglia, Prog. Clin. Biol. Res., 59A, 141 Gao, 2015, Differential alterations in the morphology and electrophysiology of layer II pyramidal cells in the primary visual cortex of a mouse model prenatally exposed to LPS, Neurosci. Lett., 591, 138, 10.1016/j.neulet.2015.02.043 Garate, 2013, Stress-induced neuroinflammation: role of the Toll-like receptor-4 pathway, Biol. Psychiatry, 73, 32, 10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.07.005 Ghio, 2012, Diesel exhaust particles and airway inflammation, Curr. Opin. Pulm. Med., 18, 144, 10.1097/MCP.0b013e32834f0e2a Gilliland, 2000, Maternal smoking during pregnancy, environmental tobacco smoke exposure and childhood lung function, Thorax, 55, 271, 10.1136/thorax.55.4.271 Ginhoux, 2010, Fate mapping analysis reveals that adult microglia derive from primitive macrophages, Science, 330, 841, 10.1126/science.1194637 Giulian, 1988, Interleukin-1 is an astroglial growth factor in the developing brain, J. Neurosci., 8, 709, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.08-02-00709.1988 Godbout, 2006, Age and neuroinflammation: a lifetime of psychoneuroimmune consequences, Neurol. Clin., 24, 521, 10.1016/j.ncl.2006.03.010 Golan, 2005, Specific neurodevelopmental damage in mice offspring following maternal inflammation during pregnancy, Neuropharmacology, 48, 903, 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2004.12.023 Graeber, 2010, Microglia: biology and pathology, Acta Neuropathol., 119, 89, 10.1007/s00401-009-0622-0 Hackman, 2010, Socioeconomic status and the brain: mechanistic insights from human and animal research, Nat. Rev. Neurosci., 11, 651, 10.1038/nrn2897 Hartz, 2008, Diesel exhaust particles induce oxidative stress, proinflammatory signaling, and P-glycoprotein up-regulation at the blood-brain barrier, FASEB J., 22, 2723, 10.1096/fj.08-106997 Hennessy, 2017, Systemic TNF-alpha produces acute cognitive dysfunction and exaggerated sickness behavior when superimposed upon progressive neurodegeneration, Brain Behav. Immun., 59, 233, 10.1016/j.bbi.2016.09.011 Hornung, 2010, Critical functions of priming and lysosomal damage for NLRP3 activation, Eur. J. Immunol., 40, 620, 10.1002/eji.200940185 Inoue, 2006, Pulmonary exposure to diesel exhaust particles enhances coagulatory disturbance with endothelial damage and systemic inflammation related to lung inflammation, Exp. Biol. Med., 231, 1626, 10.1177/153537020623101007 Inoue, 2006, The role of toll-like receptor 4 in airway inflammation induced by diesel exhaust particles, Arch. Toxicol., 80, 275, 10.1007/s00204-005-0040-6 Inoue, 2006, Effects of organic chemicals derived from ambient particulate matter on lung inflammation related to lipopolysaccharide, Arch. Toxicol., 80, 833, 10.1007/s00204-006-0105-1 Jedrychowski, 2004, Estimated risk for altered fetal growth resulting from exposure to fine particles during pregnancy: an epidemiologic prospective cohort study in Poland, Environ. Health Perspect., 112, 1398, 10.1289/ehp.7065 Kawai, 2010, The role of pattern-recognition receptors in innate immunity: update on toll-like receptors, Nat. Immunol., 11, 373, 10.1038/ni.1863 Kinney, 2008, Autism prevalence following prenatal exposure to hurricanes and tropical storms in Louisiana, J. Autism Dev. Disord., 38, 481, 10.1007/s10803-007-0414-0 Kinney, 2008, Prenatal stress and risk for autism, Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 32, 1519, 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.06.004 Krakowiak, 2012, Maternal metabolic conditions and risk for autism and other neurodevelopmental disorders, Pediatrics, 129, e1121, 10.1542/peds.2011-2583 Lauritsen, 2005, Effects of familial risk factors and place of birth on the risk of autism: a nationwide register-based study, J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry, 46, 963, 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00391.x Levesque, 2011, Diesel exhaust activates and primes microglia: Air pollution, neuroinflammation, and regulation of dopaminergic neurotoxicity, Environ. Health Perspect., 119, 1149, 10.1289/ehp.1002986 Lin, 2016, Rapid and sensitive detection of bisphenol a from serum matrix, Biosens. Bioelectron., 91, 104, 10.1016/j.bios.2016.12.024 Ling, 1993, The origin and nature of ramified and amoeboid microglia: a historical review and current concepts, Glia, 7, 9, 10.1002/glia.440070105 Maclullich, 2013, New horizons in the pathogenesis, assessment and management of delirium, Age Ageing, 42, 667, 10.1093/ageing/aft148 Maezawa, 2010, Rett syndrome microglia damage dendrites and synapses by the elevated release of glutamate, J. Neurosci., 30, 5346, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5966-09.2010 Magiati, 2016, Anxiety symptoms in young people with autism spectrum disorder attending special schools: associations with gender, adaptive functioning and autism symptomatology, Autism, 20, 306, 10.1177/1362361315577519 Magnusson, 2012, Migration and autism spectrum disorder: population-based study, Br. J. Psychiatry, 201, 109, 10.1192/bjp.bp.111.095125 Malkova, 2012, Maternal immune activation yields offspring displaying mouse versions of the three core symptoms of autism, Brain Behav. Immun., 26, 607, 10.1016/j.bbi.2012.01.011 Martin, 2008, Stereotypies and hyperactivity in rhesus monkeys exposed to IgG from mothers of children with autism, Brain Behav. Immun., 22, 806, 10.1016/j.bbi.2007.12.007 Martinon, 2009, The inflammasomes: guardians of the body, Annu. Rev. Immunol., 27, 229, 10.1146/annurev.immunol.021908.132715 Masi, 2015, Cytokine aberrations in autism spectrum disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis, Mol. Psychiatry, 20, 440, 10.1038/mp.2014.59 Matzinger, 2002, The danger model: a renewed sense of self, Science, 296, 301, 10.1126/science.1071059 Miller, 1990, Neonatal interleukin-1 beta, interleukin-6, and tumor necrosis factor: cord blood levels and cellular production, J. Pediatr., 117, 961, 10.1016/S0022-3476(05)80145-3 Molloy, 2006, Familial autoimmune thyroid disease as a risk factor for regression in children with autism spectrum disorder: a CPEA Study, J. Autism Dev. Disord., 36, 317, 10.1007/s10803-005-0071-0 Molloy, 2006, Elevated cytokine levels in children with autism spectrum disorder, J. Neuroimmunol., 172, 198, 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2005.11.007 Money, 1971, Autism and autoimmune disease: a family study, J. Autism Child. Schizophr., 1, 146, 10.1007/BF01537954 Morgan, 2010, Microglial activation and increased microglial density observed in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in autism, Biol. Psychiatry, 68, 368, 10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.05.024 Mustafa, 1989, Correlation of interleukin-1 beta and cachectin concentrations in cerebrospinal fluid and outcome from bacterial meningitis, J. Pediatr., 115, 208, 10.1016/S0022-3476(89)80067-8 Nadeem, 2017, Toll-like receptor 4 signaling is associated with upregulated NADPH oxidase expression in peripheral T cells of children with autism, Brain Behav. Immun., 61, 146, 10.1016/j.bbi.2016.12.024 Nawa, 2006, Recent progress in animal modeling of immune inflammatory processes in schizophrenia: implication of specific cytokines, Neurosci. Res., 56, 2, 10.1016/j.neures.2006.06.002 Nazeen, 2016, Integrative analysis of genetic data sets reveals a shared innate immune component in autism spectrum disorder and its co-morbidities, Genome Biol., 17, 228, 10.1186/s13059-016-1084-z Needleman, 1990, The long-term effects of exposure to low doses of lead in childhood. An 11-year follow-up report, N. Engl. J. Med., 322, 83, 10.1056/NEJM199001113220203 Pang, 2003, Disturbance of oligodendrocyte development, hypomyelination and white matter injury in the neonatal rat brain after intracerebral injection of lipopolysaccharide, Dev. Brain Res., 140, 205, 10.1016/S0165-3806(02)00606-5 Paolicelli, 2011, Synaptic pruning by microglia is necessary for normal brain development, Science, 333, 1456, 10.1126/science.1202529 Pardo, 2005, Immunity, neuroglia and neuroinflammation in autism, Int. Rev. Psychiatry, 17, 485, 10.1080/02646830500381930 Pellicano, 2006, Multiple cognitive capabilities/deficits in children with an autism spectrum disorder: “weak” central coherence and its relationship to theory of mind and executive control, Dev. Psychopathol., 18, 77, 10.1017/S0954579406060056 Perry, 2004, The influence of systemic inflammation on inflammation in the brain: implications for chronic neurodegenerative disease, Brain Behav. Immun., 18, 407, 10.1016/j.bbi.2004.01.004 Perry, 2002, Atypical inflammation in the central nervous system in prion disease, Curr. Opin. Neurol., 15, 349, 10.1097/00019052-200206000-00020 Perry, 2007, Systemic infections and inflammation affect chronic neurodegeneration, Nat. Rev. Immunol., 7, 161, 10.1038/nri2015 Perry, 2010, Microglia in neurodegenerative disease, Nat. Rev. Neurol., 6, 193, 10.1038/nrneurol.2010.17 Piras, 2014, Anti-brain antibodies are associated with more severe cognitive and behavioral profiles in Italian children with autism spectrum disorder, Brain Behav. Immun., 38, 91, 10.1016/j.bbi.2013.12.020 Piven, 1997, Cognitive deficits in parents from multiple-incidence autism families, J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry, 38, 1011, 10.1111/j.1469-7610.1997.tb01618.x Pousset, 1994, Developmental expression of cytokine genes in the cortex and hippocampus of the rat central nervous system, Brain Res. Dev. Brain Res., 81, 143, 10.1016/0165-3806(94)90078-7 Rakic, 2000, Programmed cell death in the developing human telencephalon, Eur. J. Neurosci., 12, 2721, 10.1046/j.1460-9568.2000.00153.x Rezaie, 2002, Mesoglia & microglia--a historical review of the concept of mononuclear phagocytes within the central nervous system, J. Hist. Neurosci., 11, 325, 10.1076/jhin.11.4.325.8531 Rice, 2008, A novel mouse model for acute and long-lasting consequences of early life stress, Endocrinology, 149, 4892, 10.1210/en.2008-0633 Richardson-Burns, 2004, Regional differences in viral growth and central nervous system injury correlate with apoptosis, J. Virol., 78, 5466, 10.1128/JVI.78.10.5466-5475.2004 Roberts, 2013, Perinatal air pollutant exposures and autism spectrum disorder in the children of Nurses' Health Study II participants, Environ. Health Perspect., 121, 978, 10.1289/ehp.1206187 Roberts, 2014, Women's posttraumatic stress symptoms and autism spectrum disorder in their children, Res. Autism Spectr. Disord., 8, 608, 10.1016/j.rasd.2014.02.004 Rodier, 1980, Chronology of neuron development: animal studies and their clinical implications, Dev. Med. Child Neurol., 22, 525, 10.1111/j.1469-8749.1980.tb04363.x Rossi, 2014, Brief report: antibodies reacting to brain tissue in Basque Spanish children with autism spectrum disorder and their mothers, J. Autism Dev. Disord., 44, 459, 10.1007/s10803-013-1859-y Rossignol, 2014, Environmental toxicants and autism spectrum disorders: a systematic review, Transl. Psychiatry, 4, 10.1038/tp.2014.4 Rostene, 2011, Chemokines and chemokine receptors: new actors in neuroendocrine regulations, Front. Neuroendocrinol., 32, 10, 10.1016/j.yfrne.2010.07.001 Rutter, 1983, Cognitive deficits in the pathogenesis of autism, J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry, 24, 513, 10.1111/j.1469-7610.1983.tb00129.x Sanders, 2014, Risk factors for postoperative delirium, Lancet Psychiatry, 1, 404, 10.1016/S2215-0366(14)00012-1 Saresella, 2016, The NLRP3 and NLRP1 inflammasomes are activated in Alzheimer's disease, Mol. Neurodegener., 11, 23, 10.1186/s13024-016-0088-1 Saresella, 2016, Multiple inflammasome complexes are activated in autistic spectrum disorders, Brain Behav. Immun., 57, 125, 10.1016/j.bbi.2016.03.009 Schafer, 2012, Microglia sculpt postnatal neural circuits in an activity and complement-dependent manner, Neuron, 74, 691, 10.1016/j.neuron.2012.03.026 Schmitz, 2008, Cytokines and myelination in the central nervous system, TheScientificWorldJOURNAL, 8, 1119, 10.1100/tsw.2008.140 Schulz, 2012, A lineage of myeloid cells independent of Myb and hematopoietic stem cells, Science, 336, 86, 10.1126/science.1219179 Schwartzer, 2015, Allergic fetal priming leads to developmental, behavioral and neurobiological changes in mice, Transl. Psychiatry, 5, 10.1038/tp.2015.40 Schwarz, 2011 Schwarz, 2012, Sex, glia, and development: interactions in health and disease, Horm. Behav., 62, 243, 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.02.018 Seong, 2004, Hydrophobicity: an ancient damage-associated molecular pattern that initiates innate immune responses, Nat. Rev. Immunol., 4, 469, 10.1038/nri1372 Shankardass, 2009, Parental stress increases the effect of traffic-related air pollution on childhood asthma incidence, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 106, 12406, 10.1073/pnas.0812910106 Sheinkopf, 2005, Hot topics in autism: cognitive deficits, cognitive style, and joint attention dysfunction, Med. Health Rhode Island, 88, 157 Shi, 2003, Maternal influenza infection causes marked behavioral and pharmacological changes in the offspring, J. Neurosci., 23, 297, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.23-01-00297.2003 Shi, 2009, Activation of the maternal immune system alters cerebellar development in the offspring, Brain Behav. Immun., 23, 116, 10.1016/j.bbi.2008.07.012 Sierra, 2010, Microglia shape adult hippocampal neurogenesis through apoptosis-coupled phagocytosis, Cell Stem Cell, 7, 483, 10.1016/j.stem.2010.08.014 Singer, 2009, Prenatal exposure to antibodies from mothers of children with autism produces neurobehavioral alterations: a pregnant dam mouse model, J. Neuroimmunol., 211, 39, 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2009.03.011 Smith, 2007, Maternal immune activation alters fetal brain development through interleukin-6, J. Neurosci., 27, 10695, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2178-07.2007 Smith, 2007, Maternal immune activation alters fetal brain development through interleukin-6, J. Neurosci., 27, 10695, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2178-07.2007 Solomon, 2009, The neural substrates of cognitive control deficits in autism spectrum disorders, Neuropsychologia, 47, 2515, 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.04.019 Spann, 2017, Prenatal toxoplasmosis antibody and childhood autism, Autism Res., 10, 769, 10.1002/aur.1722 Stevens, 2007, The classical complement cascade mediates CNS synapse elimination, Cell, 131, 1164, 10.1016/j.cell.2007.10.036 Streit, 2001, Microglia and macrophages in the developing CNS, Neurotoxicology, 22, 619, 10.1016/S0161-813X(01)00033-X Streit, 2009, Life and death of microglia, J. Neuroimmune Pharmacol., 4, 371, 10.1007/s11481-009-9163-5 Streit, 2009, Dystrophic (senescent) rather than activated microglial cells are associated with tau pathology and likely precede neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's disease, Acta Neuropathol., 118, 475, 10.1007/s00401-009-0556-6 Susser, 1999, Prenatal factors and adult mental and physical health, Can. J. Psychiatr., 44, 326, 10.1177/070674379904400402 Suzuki, 2013, Microglial activation in young adults with autism spectrum disorder, JAMA Psychiat., 70, 49, 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.272 Sweeten, 2003, Increased prevalence of familial autoimmunity in probands with pervasive developmental disorders, Pediatrics, 112, 10.1542/peds.112.5.e420 Sweeten, 2003, High blood monocyte counts and neopterin levels in children with autistic disorder, Am. J. Psychiatr., 160, 1691, 10.1176/appi.ajp.160.9.1691 Tamayo, 2017, Maternal stress modifies the effect of exposure to lead during pregnancy and 24-month old children's neurodevelopment, Environ. Int., 98, 191, 10.1016/j.envint.2016.11.005 Theoharides, 2016, Atopic diseases and inflammation of the brain in the pathogenesis of autism spectrum disorders, Transl. Psychiatry, 6, 10.1038/tp.2016.77 Towbin, 2005, Autism spectrum traits in children with mood and anxiety disorders, J. Child Adolesc. Psychopharmacol., 15, 452, 10.1089/cap.2005.15.452 Town, 2005, The microglial “activation” continuum: from innate to adaptive responses, J. Neuroinflammation, 2, 24, 10.1186/1742-2094-2-24 Truitt, 2007, From anxiety to autism: spectrum of abnormal social behaviors modeled by progressive disruption of inhibitory neuronal function in the basolateral amygdala in Wistar rats, Psychopharmacology, 191, 107, 10.1007/s00213-006-0674-y Urakubo, 2001, Prenatal exposure to maternal infection alters cytokine expression in the placenta, amniotic fluid, and fetal brain, Schizophr. Res., 47, 27, 10.1016/S0920-9964(00)00032-3 Vargas, 2005, Neuroglial activation and neuroinflammation in the brain of patients with autism, Ann. Neurol., 57, 67, 10.1002/ana.20315 Volk, 2013, Traffic-related air pollution, particulate matter, and autism, JAMA Psychiat., 70, 71, 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.266 Volk, 2014, Autism spectrum disorder: interaction of air pollution with the MET receptor tyrosine kinase gene, Epidemiology, 25, 44, 10.1097/EDE.0000000000000030 Wang, 2002, Microglial distribution and apoptosis in fetal rat brain, Dev. Brain Res., 139, 337, 10.1016/S0165-3806(02)00584-9 Wang, 2006, Lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation and perinatal brain injury, Semin. Fetal Neonatal Med., 11, 343, 10.1016/j.siny.2006.04.002 Weiss, 2000, The developing brain and the environment: an introduction, Environ. Health Perspect., 108, 373, 10.1289/ehp.00108s3373 White, 2009, Anxiety in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders, Clin. Psychol. Rev., 29, 216, 10.1016/j.cpr.2009.01.003 Williamson, 2013, Chemokines and the hippocampus: a new perspective on hippocampal plasticity and vulnerability, Brain Behav. Immun., 30, 186, 10.1016/j.bbi.2013.01.077 Williamson, 2011, Microglia and memory: modulation by early-life infection, J. Neurosci., 31, 15511, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3688-11.2011 Wright, 2010, Prenatal maternal stress and cord blood innate and adaptive cytokine responses in an inner-city cohort, Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 182, 25, 10.1164/rccm.200904-0637OC Xu, 1993, Variation with age in the labelling of amoeboid microglial cells in rats following intraperitoneal or intravenous injection of a fluorescent dye, J. Anat., 182, 55 Yirmiya, 2011, Immune modulation of learning, memory, neural plasticity and neurogenesis, Brain Behav. Immun., 25, 181, 10.1016/j.bbi.2010.10.015 Yoon, 1995, Amniotic fluid interleukin-6: a sensitive test for antenatal diagnosis of acute inflammatory lesions of preterm placenta and prediction of perinatal morbidity, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 172, 960, 10.1016/0002-9378(95)90028-4 Yu, 2004, Expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein in developing rat brain after intrauterine infection, Neuropathology, 24, 136, 10.1111/j.1440-1789.2003.00539.x Zerbo, 2015, Maternal Infection During Pregnancy and Autism Spectrum Disorders, J. Autism Dev. Disord., 45, 4015, 10.1007/s10803-013-2016-3 Zhan, 2014, Deficient neuron-microglia signaling results in impaired functional brain connectivity and social behavior, Nat. Neurosci., 17, 400, 10.1038/nn.3641 Zhang, 2014, An RNA-sequencing transcriptome and splicing database of glia, neurons, and vascular cells of the cerebral cortex, J. Neurosci., 34, 11929, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1860-14.2014