Drinking water contamination and treatment techniques
Tóm tắt
Water is of fundamental importance for life on earth. The synthesis and structure of cell constituents and transport of nutrients into the cells as well as body metabolism depend on water. The contaminations present in water disturb the spontaneity of the mechanism and result in long/short-term diseases. The probable contaminations and their possible routes are discussed in the present review. Continued research efforts result in some processes/technologies to remove the contaminations from water. The review includes concepts and potentialities of the technologies in a comprehensible form. It also includes some meaningful hybrid technologies and promising awaited technologies in coming years.
Tài liệu tham khảo
Ahluwalia SS, Goyal D (2007) Microbial and plant derived biomass for removal of heavy metals from wastewater. Bioresour Technol 98:2243–2257
Akira F, Rao T, Tryk D (2000) Titanium dioxide photocatalysis. J Photochem Photobiol C 1:1–21
Alexandratos SD (2009) Ion-exchange resins: a retrospective from industrial and engineering chemistry research. Ind Eng Chem Res 48(1):388–398
Ali I, Gupta VK (2007) Advances in water treatment by adsorption technology. Nat Protoc 1:266–2667
Alireza B, Mohammadi S, Mowlavi A, Parvaresh P (2010) Measurement of heavy radioactive pollution: radon and radium in drinking water samples in Mashhad. Int J Curr Res 10:54–58
Andreozzi R, Caprio V, Insol A, Marotta R (1999) Advanced oxidation processes (AOP) for water purification and recovery. Catal Today 53(1):51–59
Anwar F (2003) Assessment and analysis of industrial liquid waste and sludge disposal at unlined landfill sites in arid climate. Waste Manag 23(9):817–824
Arino MD, Pinna F, Strukul G (2004) Nitrate and nitrite hydrogenation with Pd and Pt/SnO2 catalysts: the effect of the support porosity and the role of carbon dioxide in the control of selectivity. Appl Catal B 53:161–168
Ashbolt NJ (2004) Microbial contamination of drinking water and disease outcomes in developing regions. Toxicology 198:229–238
Bahadori A, Clark M, Boyd B (2013) Essentials of water systems design in the oil, gas, and chemical processing industries. Springer, Dordchrecht
Baudu M, Le Cloirec P, Martin G (1991) Pollutant adsorption onto activated carbon membranes. Water Sci Technol 23(7–9):1659–1666
Bekbolet M, Boyacioglu Z, Ozkaraova B (1998) The influence of solution matrix on the photocatalytic removal of color from natural waters. Water Sci Technol 38:155–162
Bergmann H, Iourtchouk T, Schops K, Bouzek K (2002) New UV irradiation and direct electrolysis—promising methods for water disinfection. Chem Eng J 85:111–117
Berndt H, Mönnicha I, Lücke B, Menzel M (2001) Tin promoted palladium catalysts for nitrate removal from drinking water. Appl Catal B 30:111–122
Beveridge TC, Doyle RJ (1989) Metal ions and bacteria. Wiley Interscience, New York
Bhattacharya A (2006) Remediation of pesticides polluted water through membranes. Sep Purif Rev 35:1–38
Bhattacharya A, Ghosh P (2004) Nanofiltration and reverse osmosis membranes: theory and application in separation of electrolytes. Rev Chem Eng 20(1–2):111–173
Bhattacharya A, Yogesh Popat KM, Ganguly B, Brahmbhatt H (2008) Studies on the separation performances of chlorophenol compounds from water by thin film composite membranes. Macromol Res 16(7):590–595
Blenkinsopp SA, Costerton JW (1991) Understanding bacterial biofilms. Trends Biotechnol 9:138–143
Bolognesi C (2003) Genotoxicity of pesticides: a review of human biomonitoring studies. Mutat Res 543:251–272
Bowe CA, Martin DF (2004) Extraction of heavy metals by 2-mercaptoethoxy group attached to silica gel. J Environ Sci Health A Tox Hazard Subst Environ Eng 39(6):1469–1485
Bowe CA, Poore DD, Benson RF, Martin DF (2003) Extraction of heavy metals by amine adsorbed onto silica gel. J Environ Sci Health A Tox Hazard Subst Environ Eng 38(11):2653–2660
Branda S, Vik A, Friedman L, Kolter R (2005) Biofilms: the matrix revisited. Trends Microbiol 13:20–26
Brenniman GR, Namekata T, Kojola WH, Carnow BW, Levyin PS (1979) Cardiovascular disease death rates in communities with elevated levels of barium in drinking water. Environ Res 20(2):318–324
Brostow W, Hagg Lobland HE, Pal S, Singh RP (2009) Polymeric flocculants for wastewater and industrial effluent treatment. J Mater Educ 31(3–4):157–166
Brown HS, Bishop DR, Rowan CA (1984) The role of skin absorption as a route of exposure for volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in drinking water. Am J Pub Health (AJPH) 74:5
Bull S (2007) Asbestos-toxicological overview. Health Protection Agency. In: Chemical hazards and poisons division, Version-1. HQ, UK, pp 1–15
Busch KW, Busch M (1997) Laboratory studies on magnetic water treatment and their relationship to a possible mechanism for scale reduction. Desalination 109(2):131–148
Cadotte JE, Peterson RJ (1981) in: A. F. Turbak (ED) Thin film composite reverse osmosis membranes: origin, development, and recent advances in Synthetic membranes, Desalination, vol 1, American Chemical Society, Washington, DC
Calmon C (1986) Recent developments in water treatment by ion exchange. React Polym Ion Exch Sorbents 4(2):131–146
Can-Bao W, Zhang W (1997) Synthesizing nanoscale iron particles for rapid and complete dechlorination of TCE and PCBs. Environ Sci Technol 31(7):2154–2156
Canizares P, Paz R, Saez C, Rodrigo MA (2008) Electrochemical oxidation of alcohols and carboxylic acids with diamond anodes: a comparison with other advanced oxidation processes. Electrochim Acta 53:2144–2153
Charcosset C (2009) A review of membrane processes and renewable energies for desalination. Desalination 245:214–231
Charles FH, Swartz CH, Badruzzaman ABM, Nicole KB, Yu W, Ali A, Jay J, Beckie R, Niedan V, Brabander D (2005) Groundwater arsenic contamination on the Ganges Delta: biogeochemistry, hydrology, human perturbations and human suffering on a large scale. C R Geosci 337(1/2):285–296
Chatterjee A, Das D, Mandal BK, Chowdhury TR, Samanta G, Chakraborti D (1995) Arsenic in ground water in six districts of West Bengal, India: the biggest arsenic calamity in the world. Part I. Arsenic species in drinking water and urine of the affected people. Analyst 120:643–650
Chen ASC, Snoeyink VL, Fiessinger F (1987) Activated alumina adsorption of dissolved organic compounds before and after ozonation. Environ Sci Technol 21(1):83–90
Chen CJ, Kuo TL, Wu MM (1988) Arsenic and cancers. Lancet 331:414–415
Chen W, Xu LP, Chen S (2009) Enhanced electrocatalytic oxidation of formic acid by platinum deposition on ruthenium nanoparticle surfaces. J Electroanal Chem 631:36–42
Chong MN, Jin B, Chow CWK, Saint C (2010) Recent developments in photocatalytic water treatment technology: a review. Water Res 44:2997–3027
Clarkson T (1992) Mercury: major issues in environmental health. Environ Health Perspect 100:31–38
Cole JT, Baird JH, Basta BT (1997) Influence of buffers on pesticide and nutrient run off from Bermudagrass turf. J Environ Qual 26:1589–1598
Comninellis C, Nerini A (1995) Anodic oxidation of phenol in the presence of NaCl for wastewater treatment. J Appl Electrochem 25:23–28
Cooper RG, Harrison AP (2009a) The exposure to and health effects of antimony. Indian J Occup Environ Med 13(1):3–10
Cooper RG, Harrison AP (2009b) The uses and adverse effects of beryllium on health. Ind J Occup Environ Med 13(2):65–76
Cooper C, Cummings A, Starostin M, Honsinger C (2007) Purification of fluids with nanomaterials. US Patent No 7,211,320, May, 2007
Counter SA, Buchanan LH (2004) Mercury exposure in children: a review. Tox Appl Pharmacol 198(2):209–230
Dagostino L, Goodman A, Marshall K (1991) Physiological responses induced in bacteria adhering to surfaces. Biofouling 4:113–119
Dahi E (1997) Development of the contact precipitation method for appropriate Defluoridation of water. 2nd international workshop on fluorosis prevention and defluoridation of water, pp 128–137
Damalas CA, Eleftherohorinos IG (2011) Pesticide exposure, safety issues, and risk assessment indicators. Int J Environ Res Public Health 8:1402–1419
Daneshvar N, Niaei A, Akbari S, Aber S, Kazemian N (2007) Photocatalytic disinfection of water polluted with Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Glob Nest J 9:132–136
Daschner FD, Rüden H, Simon R, Clotten J (1996) Microbiological contamination of drinking water in commercial household water filter system. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 15(3):233–237
Deganello F, Liotta LF, Macaluso A, Venezia AM, Deganelloa G (2000) Catalytic reduction of nitrates and nitrites in water solution on pumice-supported Pd–Cu catalysts. Appl Catal B Environ 24:265–273
Delgado AN, Periago EL, Diaz-FierrosViqueira FDF (1995) Vegetated filter strips for waste water purification—a review. Bioresour Technol 51:13–22
Dierberg FE, DeBusk TA, Goulet NA Jr (1987) Removal of copper and lead using a thin film technique. In: Reddy KB, Smith WH (eds) Aquatic plants for water treatment and resource recovery. Magnolia Publishing Inc., Orlando, pp 497–504
Dillaha TA, Reneau RB, Mostaghimi S, Lee D (1989) Vegetative filter strips for agricultural nonpoint source pollution control. Trans ASAE 32(2):513–519
Ditsch A, Lindenmann S, Laibinis PE, Wang DIC, Hatton TA (2005) High-gradient magnetic separation of magnetic nanoclusters. Ind Eng Chem Res 44(17):6824–6836
Dolar SG, Kenney DR, Chesters G (1971) Mercury accumulation by Myriophyllum spicatum. Environ Lett 69:191–198
Dotzauer DM, Dai J, Sun L, Bruening ML (2006) Catalytic membranes prepared using layer by layer adsorption of polyelectrolyte/metal nanoparticle films in porous supports. Nano Lett 6:2268–2272
Eggins BR, Palmer FL, Bryne JA (1997) Photocatalytic treatment of humic substances in drinking water. Water Res 31:1223–1226
Eikebrokk B, Juhna T, Østerhus SW (2006) Water treatment by enhanced coagulation—operational status and optimization issues. Techneau D 5(3):1
Elimelech M (2006) The global challenge for adequate and safe water. J Water Supply Res Technol AQUA 55:3–10
Environmental Protection Agency US (2000) Wastewater technology sheet: chemical precipitation. United State Environmental Protection, 832-F-00-018
Environmental Protection Agency, US (2006) Inorganic Contaminant Accumulation in Potable Water Distribution Systems, Office of Groundwater and Drinking Water, USA
Environmental Protection Agency US (2009a) Health Effects Assessment for Asbestos. EPA/540/1-86/049 (NTIS PB86134608)
Environmental Protection Agency US (2009b) Pesticides: regulating pesticides. http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/regulating/index.htm
Environmental Protection Agency, US (2012) Disinfection by products: a reference resource
Esplugas S, Gime´nez J, Conteras S, Pascual E, Rodrı´guez M (2002) Comparison of different advanced oxidation processes for phenol degradation. Water Res 36:1034–1042
Eswar P, Devaraj CG (2011) Water defluoridation: field studies in India. Ind J Dent Adv 3:526–533
Fan AM, Kizer KW (1990) Selenium-nutritional, toxicologic and clinical aspects. West J Med 153:160–167
Fathia A, Mohamed T, Claude G, Maurin G, Mohamed BA (2006) Effect of a magnetic water treatment on homogeneous and heterogeneous precipitation of calcium carbonate. Water Res 40(10):1941–1950
Fawell J, Nieuwenhuijsen MJ (2003) Contaminants in drinking water. Br Med Bull 68:199–208
Fawell J, Bailey K, Chilton J, Dahi E, Fewtrell L, Magara Y (2006) Fluoride in drinking-water. World Health Organization, Published by IWA Publishing, London
Fields KA, Chen A, Wang L (2000) Arsenic removal from drinking water by coagulation/filtration and lime softening plants. EPA/600/R-00/063, USEPA, Cincinnati
Gabrielli C, Jaouhari R, Maurin G, Keddam M (2001) Magnetic water treatment for scale prevention. Water Res 35(13):3249–3259
Gala-Gorchev H (1996) Chlorine in water disinfection. Pure Appl Chem 68(9):1731–1735
Gao W, Guan N, Chen J, Guan X, Jin R, Zeng H, Liu Z, Zhang F (2003) Titania supported Pd–Cu bimetallic catalyst for the reduction of nitrate in drinking water. Appl Catal B 46:341–351
Gaya UI, Abdullah AH (2008) Heterogeneous photocatalytic degradation of organic contaminants over titanium dioxide: a review of fundamentals, progress and problems. J Photochem Photobiol C Photochem Rev 9:1–12
Ghosh U, Weber A, Jensen J, Smith J (1999) Granular activated carbon and biological active carbon treatment of dissolved and sorbed polychlorinated biphenyls. Water Environ Res 71(2):232–240
Ghrefat H, Nazzal Y, Batayneh A, Zumlot T, Zaman H, Elawadi E, Laboun A, Mogren S, Qaisy S (2014) Geochemical assessment of ground water contamination with special emphasizes on fluoride, a case study from Midyan Basin, north Western Saudi Arabia. Environ Earth Sci 71:1495–1505
Goodwin J, Forster F (1985) A further examination into the composition of activated sludge surfaces in relation to their settlement characteristics. Water Res 19:527–533
Gopal Ram, Ghosh PK (1985) Fluoride in drinking water its effects and removal. Def Sci J 35(1):71–88
Gray K, Yao C, O’Mella CR (1995) Polymeric inorganic coagulants. J Am Water Works Assoc 87:136–146
Gupta SK, Gupta RC, Seth AK, Gupta AB, Bassin JK, Guptathe A (2000) Methaemoglobinaemia in areas with high nitrate concentration in drinking water. Nat Med J Ind 13(2):58–61
Haki J, Hunyadi I, Varga K, Csige I (1995) Determination of radon and radium content of water samples by SSNTD technique. Radiat Meas 25(1–4):657–658
Harper TR, Kingham NW (1992) Removal of arsenic from wastewater using chemical precipitation methods. Water Environ Res 64(3):200–203
Harvey RW, Smith RL, George L (1984) Effect of organic contamination upon microbial distributions and heterotrophic uptake in a Cape Cod, Mass., aquifer. Appl Environ Microb 48(6):1197–1202
Heasman M, Mellentin J (2001) The functional foods revolution healthy people, healthy profits?. Earthscan Publisher, London, p 280. ISBN 978-1-85383-687-9
Heckel A, Seebach D (2000) Immobilization of TADDOL with a high degree of loading on porous silica gel and first applications in enantioselective catalysis. Angew Chem Int Ed 39(1):163–165
Hering JG, Chen P, Wilkie JA, Elimelech M (1997) Arsenic removal from drinking water during coagulation. J Environ Eng ASCE 123(8):800–807
Hijnen WAM, Beerendonk EF, Medema GJ (2006) Inactivation credit of UV radiation for viruses, bacteria and protozoan (oo)cysts in water: a review. Water Res 40:3–22
Hillis P (2000) Membrane technology in water and waste water treatment. The Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge 269
Hitzfeld BC, Höger SJ, Dietrich DR (2000) Cyanobacterial toxins: removal during drinking water treatment, and human risk assessment. Environ Health Perspect 108:113–122
Hoffmann C, Franzreb M (2004a) A novel repulsive-mode high gradient magnetic separator—I. Design and experimental results Part 1. IEEE Trans Magn 40(2):456–461
Hoffmann C, Franzreb M (2004b) A novel repulsive-mode high gradient magnetic separator—II. Design and experimental results Part 2. IEEE Trans Magn 40(2):462–468
Hoffmann M, Martin S, Choi W, Bahnemann D (1995) Environmental applications of semiconductor photocatalysis. Chem Rev 95:69–96
Hollman AM, Bhattacharya D (2004) Pore assembled multilayers of charged polypeptides in microporous membranes for ion separation. Langmuir 20(13):5418–5424
Ibhadon AO, Fitzpatrick (2013) Hetergeneous photocatalysts; recent advances and applications. Catalysts 3:189–218
Iler RK (1979) The chemistry of silica. Wiley, New York
Inamori Y, Fujimoto N (2009) Water quality and standards—Vol. II, microbial/biological contamination of water. Encyclopaedia of Life support systems (EOLSS)
Iwashita Y, Ichikawa M, Tajima Y, Nakamura S, Kumada M, Spencer CM, Tauchi T, Kuroda S, Okugi T, Ino T, Muto S, Shimizu HM (2008) Strong variable permanent multipole magnets. IEEE Trans Appl Supercond 18(2):957–960
Jafarpour MM, Foolad A, Mansouri MK, Nikbakhsh Z, Saeedizade H (2010) Ammonia removal from nitrogenous industrial waste water using iranian natural zeolite of clinoptilolite type. World Acad Sci Eng Technol 46:939–945
Jiang JQ, Graham NJD (1998) Pre-polymerised inorganic coagulants and phosphorus removal by coagulation—a review. Water SA 24(3):237–244
Jianxin L, Jingxia L, Tao Y, Changfa X (2007) Quantitative study of the effect of electromagnetic field on scale deposition on nanofiltration membranes via UTDR. Water Res 41(20):4595–4610
Jiuhui QU (2008) Research progress of novel adsorption processes in water purification: a review. J Environ Sci 20(1):1–13
Kakihara Y, Fukunishi T, Takeda S, Nishijima S, Nakahira A (2004) Superconducting high gradient magnetic separation for purification of wastewater from paper factory. IEEE Trans Appl Supercond 14(2):1565–1567
Kalló D (2001) Applications of natural zeolites in water and wastewater treatment. Rev Min Geochem 45:519–550
Karapınar N (2009) Application of natural zeolite for phosphorus and ammonium removal from aqueous solutions. J Hazard Mat 170(2–3):1186–1191
Kass A, Yechieli Gavrieli Y, Vengosh A, Starinsky A (2005) The impact of freshwater and wastewater irrigation on the chemistry of shallow groundwater: a case study from the Israeli Coastal aquifer. J Hydrol 300(1–4):314–331
Kerwick M, Reddy S, Holt D, Chamberlain A (2005) A methodology for the evaluation of disinfection technologies. J Water Health 3(4):393–404
Khan MMH, Sakauchi F, Sonoda T, Washio M, Mori M (2003) Magnitude of arsenic toxicity in tube-well drinking water in Bangladesh and its adverse effects on human health including cancer: evidence from a review of the literature. Asian Pacific J Cancer Prev 4:7–14
Klavarioti M, Mantzavinos D, Kassinos D (2009) Removal of residual pharmaceuticals from aqueous systems by advanced oxidation processes. Environ Int 35:402–417
Koter S, Warszawski A (2000) Electromembrane processes in environment protection. Pol J Environ Stud 9(1):45–56
Lapworth DJ, Baran N, Stuart ME, Ward RS (2012) Emerging organic contaminants in groundwater: a review of sources, fate and occurrence. Environ Poll 163:287–303
Lawrence K, Tong D (2005) Feasibility of using biologically activated carbon for treatment of gaseous H2S. J Inst Eng 45(4):15–23
Lawrence KW, David AV, Yan L, Nazih KS (2005) Chemical precipitation. In: Lawrence KW, Hung YT, Nazih KS (eds) Hand book of environmental engineering, physiochemical treatment processes, vol 3. The Humana Press Inc., Totowa, NJ, pp 141–197
Lazarova V, Manem J (1995) Biofilm characterization and activity analysis in water and wastewater treatment. Water Res 29(10):2227–2245
Li XL, Yao KL, Liu HR, Liu ZL (2007) The investigation of capture behaviors of different shape magnetic sources in the high-gradient magnetic field. J Magn Mater 311(2):481–488
Li Q, Mahendra S, Lyon DY, Brunet L, Liga MV, Li D, Alvarez PJJ (2008) Antimicrobial nanomaterials for water disinfection and microbial control: potential applications and implications. Water Res 42(18):4591–4602
Li M, Feng C, Zhang Z, Yang S, Sugiura N (2010) Treatment of nitrate contaminated water using an electrochemical method. Bioresour Technol 101:6553–6557
Ligor M, Buszewski B (2006) An Investigation of the formation of taste and odour contaminants in surface water using the headspace SPME-GC/MS method. Pol J Environ Stud 15(3):429–435
Liu A, Ming J, Ankumah RO (2005) Nitrate contamination in private wells in rural Alabama, United States. Sci Tot Environ 346(1–3):112–120
Louhichi B, Ahmadi MF, Bensalah N, Gadri A, Rodrigo MA (2008) Electrochemical degradation of an anionic surfactant on boron-doped diamond anodes. J Hazard Mat 158:430–437
Low KS, Lee CK, Lee KP (1993) Sorption of copper by dye treated oil palm fibers. Bioresour Technol 44:109–112
Maine MA, Maria VD, Noemi S (2001) Cadmium uptake by floating macrophytes. Water Res 35(11):2629–2634
Maine MA, Suñé NL, Lagger SC (2004) Chromium bioaccumulation: comparison of the capacity of two floating aquatic macrophytes. Water Res 38:1494–1501
Makwana BS, Desale GR, Thampy SK, Ghosh PK (2010) Attachment to domestic RO unit for high recovery of pure water from brakish water without compromising on quality. EDRO patent, US Patent 1418/DEL/
Manuel O, Fernando P, Hernán S, Bo L, Ricardo U (1998) Copper in infant nutrition: safety of World Health Organization provisional guideline value for copper content of drinking water. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 26(3):251–257
Margeta K, Logar NZ, Šiljeg M, Farkas A (2013) In: Elshorbagy W (ed) Natural zeolites in water treatment—how effective is their use, water treatment. InTech, Croatia. ISBN 978-953-51-0928-0
Martinez-Huitle CA, Ferro S (2006) Electrochemical oxidation of organic pollutants for the wastewater treatment: direct and indirect processes. Chem Soc Rev 35:1324–1340
Matlock MM, Howerton BS, Atwood DA (2002) Chemical precipitation of heavy metals from acid mine drainage. Water Res 36(19):4757–4764
Meenakshi Maheshwari RC (2006) Fluoride in drinking water and its removal. J Hazard Mater B137:456–463
Melvin A, Benarde W, Brewster S, Vincent P, Olivieri Burton D (1967) Kinetics and mechanism of bacterial disinfection by chlorine dioxide. Appl Microbiol 15(2):257–265
Michael N, Hughes JB, Wong MS (2005) Designing Pd-on Au bimetallic nanoparticles for trichloroethane hydrochlorination. Environ Sci Technol 39(5):1346–1353
Mikami I, Sakamoto Y, Yoshinaga Y, Okuhara T (2003) Kinetic and adsorption studies on the hydrogenation of nitrate and nitrite in water using Pd–Cu on active carbon support. Appl Catal B 44:79–86
Mikami I, Kitayama R, Okuhara T (2006) Hydrogenations of nitrate and nitrite in water over Pt-promoted Ni catalysts. Appl Catal A Gen 297:24–30
Mohana N, Balasubramanian N (2006) In situ electrocatalytic oxidation of acid violet 12 dye effluent. J Hazard Mat B136:239–243
Mok WM, Wai CM (1994) Mobilization of arsenic in contaminated river waters. In: Nriagu JO (ed) Arsenic in the environment, Part I: cycling and characterization. Wiley, John, pp 99–118
Moore MT, Bennett ER, Cooper CM, Smith S, Shields FD, Milam CD, Farris JL (2001) Transport and fate of atrazine and lambda cyhalothrin in an agricultural drainage ditch in the Missisipidelta, USA. Agric Ecosyst Environ 87:309–314
Morsia MS, Al-Sarawyb AA, Shehab El-Dein WA (2011) Electrochemical degradation of some organic dyes by electrochemical oxidation on a Pb/PbO2 electrode. Desalin Water Treat 26:301–308
Mulligan CN, Yong RN, Gibbs BF (2001) Remediation technologies for metal contaminated soils and groundwater: an evaluation. Eng Geol 60(1–4):193–200
Mustafiz S, Basu A, Islam MR, Dewaidar A, Chaalal O (2002) A novel method for heavy metal removal using fish scales. Energy Sources 24:1043–1051
Nataraj SK, Hosamani KM, Aminabhavi TM (2009) Nanofiltration and reverse osmosis thin film composite membrane module for the removal of dye and salts from the simulated mixtures. Desalination 249(1):12–17
Needleman HL, Schell A, Bellinger D, Leviton A, Allred EN (1990) The long-term effects of exposure to low doses of lead in childhood—an 11-year follow-up report. N Eng J Med 322(2):83–88
Nishijima S, Takeda S (2007) Research and development of superconducting high gradient magnetic separation for purification of wastewater from paper factory. IEEE Trans Appl Supercond 17(2):2311–2314
Nriagu JO (1988) A silent epidemic of environmental metal poisoning? Environ Pollut 50:139–161
Nwachcuku N, Gerba CP (2004) Emerging waterborne pathogens: can we kill them all? Curr Opin Biotechnol 15:175–180
Okada H, Mitsuhashi K, Ohara T, Whitby ER, Wada H (2005) Computational fluid dynamics simulation of high gradient magnetic separation. Sep Sci Technol 40(7):1567–1584
Olson OE (1986) Selenium toxicity in animals with emphasis on man. Int J Toxicol 5:45–70
Ormerod J, Constantinides S (1997) Bonded permanent magnets: current status and future opportunities. J Appl Phys 81(8):4816–4820
Pagga U, Bruan D (1986) The degradation of dyestuffs: part II Behaviour of dyestuffs in aerobic biodegradation tests. Chemosphere 15:479–491
Pal A, Gin KY, Lin AYC, Reinhard M (2010) Impacts of emerging organic contaminants on freshwater resources: review of recent occurrences, sources, fate and effects. Sci Total Environ 408:6062–6069
Pal A, He Y, Jekel M, Reinhard M, Gin KY (2014) Emerging contaminants of public health significance as water quality indicator compounds in the urban water cycle. Environ Int 71:46–62
Park SK, Hu JY (2010) Assessment of the extent of bacterial growth in reverse osmosis system for improving water quality. J Environ Sci Health A Tox Hazard Subst Environ Eng 45(8):968–977
Pawlak Z, Zak S, Zablocki L (2005) Removal of hazardous metals from groundwater by reverse osmosis. Pollut J Environ Stud 15(4):579–583
Peel JW, Reddy KJ, Sullivan BP, Bowen JM (2003) Electrocatalytic reduction of nitrate in water. Water Res 37:2512–2519
Penlidis A, Vivaldo-Lima E, Wood PE, Hamielec AE (1997) An updated review on suspension polymerization. Ind Eng Chem Res 36:939–965
Pera-Titus M, Garcıa-Molina V, Baños MA, Giménez J, Esplugas S (2004) Degradation of chlorophenols by means of advanced oxidation processes: a general review. Appl Catal B Environ 47:219–256
Pintar A, Batista J, Muševiˇc I (2004) Palladium–copper and palladium–tin catalysts in the liquid phase nitrate hydrogenation in a batch-recycle reactor. Appl Catal B 52:49–60
Pontius FW, Brown KG, Chen CJ (1994) Health implications of arsenic in drinking water. J Am Water Work Assoc 86:52–63
Prevot AB, Baiocchi C, Brussino MC, Pramauro E, Savarino P, Augugliaro V, Marci G, Palmisano L (2001) Photocatalytic degradation of acid blue 80 in aqueous solution containing TiO2 suspension. Environ Sci Technol 35:971
Public Health Service, US (1992) Toxicologocal profile for antimony and compounds. Agency for Toxic Substunces and Disease Registry
Punayani S, Narayana P, Sing H, Vasudevan P (2006) J Sci Ind Res 65:116–120
Qi G, Yang RT, Rinaldi FC (2006) Selective catalytic reduction of nitric oxide with hydrogen over Pd-based catalysts. J Catal 237:381–392
Qu J (2008) Research progress of novel adsorption processes in water purification: a review. J Environ Sci (China) 20(1):1–13
Radovici O, Banu A, Pirvu C (2009) Micro reactor for chlorophenols electrocatalytic oxidation. ECS Trans 16(27):1–9
Rahman MM, Awang MB, Yusof AM (2012) Preparation, characterization and application of zeolite-Y (Na-Y) for water filtration. Aus J Basic Appl Sci 6(1):50–54
Rai PK (2007a) Phytoremediation of Pb and Ni from industrial effluents using Lemna minor: an eco-sustainable approach. Bull Biosci 5(1):67–73
Rai PK (2007b) Wastewater management through biomass of Azolla pinnata: an ecosustainable approach. Ambio 36(5):426–428
Rai PK (2009) Heavy metal phytoremediation from aquatic ecosystems with special reference to macrophytes. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol 39:697–753
Ram NM, Christman RF, Cantor KP (1990) Significance and treatment of volatile organic compounds in water supplies. Lewis Publishers, Chicago
Rao PV, Gupta N, Bhaskar AS, Jayraj R (2002) Toxins and bioactive compounds from cyanobacteria and their implication on human health. J Environ Biol 23(3):215–224
Ray(Arora) S, Ray MK (2009) Bioremediation of heavy metal toxicity-with special reference to chromium. Al Ameen J Med Sci 2(2):57–63
Reife A, Freeman H (1996) Environmental chemistry of dyes and pigments. Wiley, NewYork
Ronald E (1991) Cyanide hazards to fish, wildlife, and invertebrates: a synoptic review. US Fish Wildl Serv Biol Rep 85:1–23
Rukah A, Alsokhny K (2004) Geochemical assessment of groundwater contamination with special emphasis on fluoride concentration, North Jordan. Chem Erde Geochem 64(2):171–181
Rusin PA, Rose JB, Haas CN, Gerba CP (1997) Risk assessment of opportunistic bacterial pathogens in drinking water. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol 152:57–83
Saha NK, Bhattacharya A (2010) Urboniene Chapter 5: membrane desalination: methods, cost and technology. In: Irena A (ed) Desalination: methods, cost and technology. Nova Science Publishers, New York, pp 175–208
Savage N, Diallo MS (2005) Nanomaterials and water purification: opportunities and challenges. J Nano Res 7:331–342
Scholz M, Martin R (1997) Ecological equilibrium on biologicalactive carbon. Water Res 31(12):2959–2968
Selvaggi JA, Cottrell DL, Falconer TH, Daugherty MA, Daney DE, Hill DD, Prenger FC (1998) High gradient magnetic separation using a high temperature superconducting magnet. Appl Supercond 6(1):31–36
Semple AB, Parry WH, Phillips DE (1960) Acute copper poisoning: an outbreak traced to contaminated water from a corroded geyser. Lancet 2:700–701
Shaffer L, Mintz M (1980) Electrodialysis. In: Spiegler K, Laird A (eds) principles of desalination, 2nd edn, chapter 6. Academic Press, New York, pp 257–357
Shannon MA, Bohn PW, Elimelech M, Georgiadis JG, Marinas BJ, Mayes AM (2008) Science and technology for water purification in the coming decades. Nature 452:301–310
Smith AH, Lingas EO, Rahman M (2000) Contamination of drinking-water by arsenic in Bangladesh: a public health emergency. Bull World Health Org 78(9):1093–1103
Snoeyink V, Jenkins D (1980) Water chemistry. Wiley, New York, p 463
Soares OSGP, Orfao JJM, Pereira MFR (2008) Activated carbon supported metal catalysts for nitrate and nitrite reduction in water. Catal Lett 126:253–260
Soares OSGP, Orfao JJM, Ruiz-Martinez J, Silvestre-Albero J, Sepúlveda-Escribano A, Pereira MFR (2010) Pd–Cu/AC and Pt–Cu/AC catalysts for nitrate reduction with hydrogen: influence of calcinations and reduction temperatures. Chem Eng J 165:78–88
Stanley RA (1974) Toxicity of heavy metals and salts to Eurasian watermill foil (Myriophyllum spicatum L.). Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 2:331–340
Strathmann H (2010a) Electrodialysis, a mature technology with a multitude of new applications. Desalination 264:268–288
Strathmann H (2010b) Ion-exchange membrane processes in water treatment. Sustain Sci Eng 2(9):141–199
Stuart M, Lapworth D, Crane E, Hart A (2012) Review of risk from potential emerging contaminants in UK groundwater. Sci Total Environ 416:1–21
Susheela AK (1999) Fluorosis management programme in India. Curr Sci 77(10):1250–1256
Tee TW, Khan ARM (1988) Removal of lead, cadmium, and zinc by waste tea leaves. Environ Technol Lett 9:1223–1232
Teoh WY, Amal R, Scott J (2012) Progress in heterogenours photocatalysis: from classical radical chemistry to engineering nanomaterials and solar reactors. J Phys Chem Lett 3:629–639
Timoshenko EM, Ugarov GG (1994) Limiting efficiency of an electromagnet with a linear magnetic system—critical-review. J Min Sci 30(6):604–606
Tucker PM, Waite MJ, Hayden BE (2004) Electrocatalytic reduction of nitrate on activated rhodium electrode surfaces. J Appl Electrochem 34:781–796
Tzvetkova P, Nickolov R (2012) Modified and unmodified silica gel used for heavy metal ions removal from aqueous solutions. J Univ Chem Tech Metall 47(5):498–504
United Nations World Water Assessment Programme (UN WWAP) (2003) The World Water Development Report 1: water for people, water for life. UNESCO, Paris
University of Florida (1998) Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. Trihalomethanes and Our Water Supply
Valli F, Tijoriwala A, Mahapatra A (2010) Nanotechnology for water purification. Int Nuc Desalin 4:49–57
Veil J (2008) Thermal distillation technology for management of produced water and frac flowback water. Water Tech Brief #2008-1
Ventura A, Jacquet G, Bermond A, Camel V (2002) Electrochemical generation of the Fenton’s reagent: application to atrazine degradation. Water Res 36:3517–3522
VonGunten U (2003a) Ozonation of drinking water: part I. Oxidation kinetics and product formation. Water Res 37:1443–1467
VonGunten U (2003b) Ozonation of drinking water: part II. Disinfection and by-product formation in presence of bromide, iodide or chlorine. Water Res 37:1469–1487
Wang Y, Qu J, Wu R, Lei P (2006) The electrocatalytic reduction of nitrate in water on Pd/Sn-modified activated carbon fiber electrode. Water Res 40:1224–1232
Watlungton K (2005) Emerging nanotechnologies for site remediation and waste water treatment. National Network for environmental Management Fellow North Carolina State University, Environmental Protection Agency, US
Weber W, Pribazari M, Melson G (1978) Biological growth on active carbon: an investigation by scanning electron microscopy. Environ Sci Technol 12:817R–819R
Wehrmann HA, Barcelona MJ, Varljen MD, Blinkiewicz G (1996) Ground-Water Contamination by Volatile Organic Compounds: Site Characterization, Spatial and Temporal Variability ISWS CR-591: Report 591, Prepared for the US Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory Advanced Monitoring Systems Division Aquatic and Subsurface Monitoring Branch
WHO (2008) Guidelines for drinking-water quality. Recommendations, vol 1, 3rd edn. World Health Organization, Geneva
WHO (2010) International Code of Conduct on the distribution and use of pesticides: guidelines for the registration of pesticides. World Health Organization, Rome
Wones RG, Stadler BL, Frohman LA (1990) Lack of effect of drinking water barium on cardiovascular risk factors. Environ Health Perspect 85:355–359
Xie W, Wang Q, Ma H, Ohsumi Y, Ogawa HI (2005) Study on phosphorus removal using a coagulation system. Process Biochem 40(8):2623–2627
Xu T (2005) Ion exchange membranes: state of their development and perspective. J Membr Sci 263:1–29
Comninellis C (1994) Electrocatalysis in the electrochemical conversion/combustion of organic pollutants for waste water treatment. Electrochim Acta 39(11/12):1857–1862
Yan LG, Nan HL, Yu YJ, Dai YM, Song SS, Ye ZX, Chen YL (1996) A fast ramp superconducting magnet for HGMS. IEEE Trans Magn 32(4):2707–2709
Yang RT (1997) Gas separation by adsorption process. Imperial College Press, London
Yang RT, Benton DF (2003) Adsorbents: fundamentals and applications, activated carbon, vol Chapter 5. Wiley, Oxford, p 80. doi:10.1002/047144409X.ch5
Yoshida T, Yamauchi H, Sun GF (2004) Chronic health effects in people exposed to arsenic via the drinking water: dose–response relationships in review. Tox Appl Pharmacol 198:243–252
Younes M, Galal-Gorchev H (2000) Pesticides in drinking water—a case study. Food Chem Toxicol 38(1):S87–S90
Zayed A, Gowthaman S, Terry N (1998) Phytoaccumulation of trace elements by wetland plants: duckweed. J Environ Qual 27:715–721
Zhang J, Dong MD, Li SK (1997) Cancer mortality in a Chinese population exposed to hexavalent chromium in water. J Occup Environ Med 39(4):315–319
Zhang X, Wnag J, Wang Z, Wang S (2005) Electrocatalytic reduction of nitrate at polypyrrole modified electrode. Synth Met 155:95–99
Zhang H, Quan X, Chen S, Zhao H, Zhao Y (2006) Fabrication of photocatalytic membrane and evaluation its efficiency in removal of organic pollutants from water. Sep Purif Technol 50:147–155
Zhu ZQ, Halbach HD (2001) Permanent magnet machines and applications: a review. IEEE Proc Electr Power Appl 148(4):299–308
Zhu YL, Zayed AM, Quian JH, Desouza M, Terry N (1999) Phytoaccumulation of trace elements by wetland plants: II. Water hyacinth. J Environ Qual 28:339–344
Zodrow K, Brunet L, Mahendra S, Li D, Zhang A, Li Q, Alvarez PJJ (2009) Polysulfone ultrafiltration membranes impreganated with silver nanoparticles show improved biofouling resistance and virus removal. Water Res 43(3):715–723