Coagulopathy and haemorrhagic progression in traumatic brain injury: advances in mechanisms, diagnosis, and management

The Lancet Neurology - Tập 16 - Trang 630-647 - 2017
Marc Maegele1,2, Herbert Schöchl3, Tomas Menovsky4, Hugues Maréchal5, Niklas Marklund6, Andras Buki7, Simon Stanworth8
1Department for Trauma and Orthopaedic Surgery, Cologne–Merheim Medical Center, University Witten/Herdecke, Cologne, Germany
2Institute for Research in Operative Medicine, University Witten/Herdecke, Cologne, Germany
3Department for Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, AUVA Trauma Academic Teaching Hospital, Paracelsus Medical University Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
4Department for Neurosurgery, Antwerp University Hospital, University of Antwerp, Edegem, Belgium
5Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, CRH La Citadelle, Liège, Belgium
6Department of Clinical Sciences, Division of Neurosurgery, University Hospital of Southern Sweden, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
7Department of Neurosurgery, The MTA-PTE Clinical Neuroscience MR Research Group, Janos Szentagothai Research Center, Hungarian Brain Research Program, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
8NHS Blood and Transplant/Oxford University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, UK

Tài liệu tham khảo

Hyder, 2007, The impact of traumatic brain injuries, NeuroRehabilitation, 22, 341, 10.3233/NRE-2007-22502 2016, Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 310 diseases and injuries, 1990–2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Diseases Study 2015, Lancet, 388, 1545, 10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31678-6 Hoyt, 2004, A clinical review of bleeding dilemmas in trauma, Semin Hematol, 41, 40, 10.1053/j.seminhematol.2003.11.009 Harhangi, 2008, Coagulation disorders after traumatic brain injury, Acta Neurochir (Wien), 150, 165, 10.1007/s00701-007-1475-8 Laroche, 2012, Coagulopathy after traumatic brain injury, Neurosurgery, 70, 1334, 10.1227/NEU.0b013e31824d179b Sun, 2011, Validating the incidence of coagulopathy and disseminated intravascular coagulation in patients with traumatic brain injury: analysis of 242 cases, Br J Neurosurg, 25, 363, 10.3109/02688697.2011.552650 Chen, 2013, The influence of hemocoagulation disorders on the development of posttraumatic cerebral infarction and outcome in patients with moderate or severe head trauma, Biomed Res Int, 2013, 685174 Epstein, 2014, Acute traumatic coagulopathy in the setting of isolated traumatic brain injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis, Injury, 45, 819, 10.1016/j.injury.2014.01.011 Zetabchi, 2008, The association of coagulopathy and traumatic brain injury in patients with isolated head injury, Resuscitation, 76, 52, 10.1016/j.resuscitation.2007.06.024 Talving, 2009, Coagulopathy in severe traumatic brain injury: a prospective study, J Trauma, 66, 55, 10.1097/TA.0b013e318190c3c0 Lustenberger, 2010, Time course of coagulopathy is isolated severe traumatic brain injury, Injury, 41, 924, 10.1016/j.injury.2010.04.019 Lustenberger, 2010, Early coagulopathy after isolated severe traumatic brain injury: relationship with hypoperfusion challenged, J Trauma, 69, 1410, 10.1097/TA.0b013e3181cdae81 Wafaisade, 2010, Acute coagulopathy in isolated blunt traumatic brain injury, Neuro Crit Care, 12, 211 Chhabra, 2010, Hypofibrinogenaemia in isolated traumatic brain injury in Indian patients, Neurol India, 58, 756, 10.4103/0028-3886.72175 Greuters, 2011, Acute and delayed mild coagulopathy are related to outcome in patients with isolated traumatic brain injury, Crit Care, 15, R2, 10.1186/cc9399 Shehata, 2011, Prevalence and clinical implications of coagulopathy in patients with isolated head trauma, Med J Cairo Univ, 79, 131 Schöchl, 2011, Thrombelastometric (ROTEM) findings in patients suffering from isolated severe traumatic brain injury, J Neurotrauma, 28, 2033, 10.1089/neu.2010.1744 Franschman, 2012, Haemostatic and cranial computed tomography characteristics in patients with acute and delayed coagulopathy after isolated traumatic brain injury, Brain Inj, 26, 1464, 10.3109/02699052.2012.694566 Genet, 2013, Trauma-induced coagulopathy: standard coagulation tests, biomarkers of coagulopathy, and endothelial damage in patients with traumatic brain injury, J Neurotrauma, 30, 301, 10.1089/neu.2012.2612 Alexiou, 2013, Admission glucose and coagulopathy occurrence in patients with traumatic brain injury, Brain Inj, 28, 438, 10.3109/02699052.2014.888769 Joseph, 2014, Acquired coagulopathy of traumatic brain injury defined by routine laboratory tests: which laboratory values matter?, J Trauma Crit Care Surg, 76, 121, 10.1097/TA.0b013e3182a9cc95 Epstein, 2014, Acute traumatic coagulopathy in the setting of isolated traumatic brain injury: definition, incidence and outcomes, Br J Neurosurg, 25, 1 De Oliveira Manoel, 2015, Traumatic brain injury associated coagulopathy, Neurocrit Care, 22, 34, 10.1007/s12028-014-0026-4 Dekker, 2016, Relationship between tissue perfusion and coagulopathy in traumatic brain injury, J Surg Res, 205, 147, 10.1016/j.jss.2016.06.023 Kumar, 2013, Coagulopathy associated with traumatic brain injury, Curr Neurol Neurosci Res, 13, 391, 10.1007/s11910-013-0391-y Abdelmalik, 2016, Acute traumatic coagulopathy accompanying isolated traumatic brain injury is associated with worse long-term functional and cognitive outcome, Neurocrit Care, 24, 361, 10.1007/s12028-015-0191-0 Roozenbeek, 2013, Changing patterns in the epidemiology of traumatic brain injury, Nat Rev Neurol, 9, 231, 10.1038/nrneurol.2013.22 Peeters, 2015, Epidemiology of traumatic brain injury in Europe, Acta Neurochirur (Wien), 157, 1683, 10.1007/s00701-015-2512-7 Hay, 2015, Blood-brain barrier disruption is an early event that may persist for many years after traumatic brain injury in humans, J Neuropathol Exp Neurol, 74, 1147 Evans, 2010, Epidemiology of traumatic deaths: comprehensive population-based assessment, World J Surg, 34, 158, 10.1007/s00268-009-0266-1 Ball, 2015, Damage control surgery, Curr Opin Crit Care, 21, 538, 10.1097/MCC.0000000000000252 Briggs, 2016, Damage control resuscitation, Int J Surg, 33, 218, 10.1016/j.ijsu.2016.03.064 Rossaint, 2016, The European guideline on management of major bleeding and coagulopathy following trauma: 4th edition, Crit Care, 20, 100, 10.1186/s13054-016-1265-x McCully, 2013, Traumatic brain injury and its effect on coagulopathy, Semin Thromb Hemost, 39, 896, 10.1055/s-0033-1357484 Gomez, 1996, Mild head injury: differences in prognosis among patients with a Glasgow Coma Scale score of 13 to 15 and analysis of factors associated with abnormal CT findings, Br J Neurosurg, 10, 453, 10.1080/02688699647078 Maegele, 2007, Early coagulopathy in multiply injury: an analysis from the German Trauma Registry on 8724 patients, Injury, 38, 298, 10.1016/j.injury.2006.10.003 Chang, 2016, Advances in the understanding of trauma-induced coagulopathy, Blood, 128, 1043, 10.1182/blood-2016-01-636423 Yuan, 2016, Coagulopathy in traumatic brain injury and its correlation with progressive hemorrhage injury: a systematic review and meta-analyis, J Neurotrauma, 33, 1279, 10.1089/neu.2015.4205 Zhang, 2015, Coagulation parameters and risk of progressive hemorrhagic injury after traumatic brain injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis, Biomed Res Int, 2015, 261825, 10.1155/2015/261825 Tian, 2010, D-dimer as a predictor of pregressive hemorrhagic injury in patients with traumatic brain injury: analysis of 194 cases, Neurosurg Rev, 33, 359, 10.1007/s10143-010-0251-z Tong, 2012, Prognosis analysis and risk factors related to progressive intracranial haemorrhage in patients with acute traumatic brain injury, Brain Inj, 26, 1136, 10.3109/02699052.2012.666437 Juratli, 2014, Early hemorrhagic progression of traumatic brain contusions: frequency, correlation with coagulation disorders, and patient outcome: a prospective study, J Neurotrauma, 31, 1521, 10.1089/neu.2013.3241 Rao, 2016, The utility of thromboelastography for predicting the risk of progression of intracranial hemorrhage in traumatic brain injury patients, Neurosurgery, 63, 173, 10.1227/01.neu.0000489754.05157.93 Carrick, 2005, Subsequent development of thrombocytopenia and coagulopathy in moderate and severe head injury: support for serial examination, J Trauma, 58, 725, 10.1097/01.TA.0000159249.68363.78 Kurland, 2012, Hemorrhagic progression of a contusion after traumatic brain injury: a review, J Neurotrauma, 29, 19, 10.1089/neu.2011.2122 Folkerson, 2015, Predicting progrssive hemorrhagic injury from isolated traumatic brain injury and coagulation, Surgery, 158, 655, 10.1016/j.surg.2015.02.029 Allard, 2009, Abnormal coagulation tests are associated with progression of traumatic intracranial hemorrhage, J Trauma, 67, 959, 10.1097/TA.0b013e3181ad5d37 Wutzler, 2009, Association of preexisting medical conditions with in-hospital mortality in multiply trauma patients, Am Coll Surg, 209, 75, 10.1016/j.jamcollsurg.2009.03.015 Batchelor, 2012, A meta-analysis to determine the effect of anticoagulation on mortality in patients with blunt head trauma, Br J Neurosurg, 26, 525, 10.3109/02688697.2011.650736 Batchelor, 2012, A meta-analysis to determine the effect of preinjury antiplatelet agents on mortality in patients with blunt head trauma, Br J Neurosurg, 27, 1 Fabbri, 2013, Antiplatalet therapy and the outcome of subjects with intracranial injury: the Italian SIMEU study, Crit Care, 17, R53, 10.1186/cc12575 Grandhi, 2015, Preinjury warfin, but not antiplatelet medications, increases mortality in elderly traumatic brain injury patients, J Trauma Acute Care Surg, 78, 614, 10.1097/TA.0000000000000542 Prinz, 2016, High prevalence of pharmacologically induced platelet dysfunction in the acute setting of brain injury, Acta Neurochir (Wien), 158, 117, 10.1007/s00701-015-2645-8 Tauber, 2009, Secondary intracranial hemorrhage after mild head injury in patients with low-dose acetylsalicylate acid prophylaxis, J Trauma, 67, 521, 10.1097/TA.0b013e3181a7c184 Nishijima, 2013, Risk of unfavourable long-term outcome in older adults with traumatic intracranial hemorrhage and anticoagulant or antiplatelet use, Am J Emerg Med, 31, 1244, 10.1016/j.ajem.2013.04.035 Nishijima, 2012, Utility of platelet transfusion in adult patients with traumatic intracranial hemorrhage and preinjury antiplatelet use: a systematic review, J Trauma Acute Care Surg, 72, 1658, 10.1097/TA.0b013e318256dfc5 Nishijima, 2013, Risk of traumatic intracranial hemorrhage in patients with head injury and preinjury warfarin or clopidogrel use, Acad Emerg Med, 20, 140, 10.1111/acem.12074 Joseph, 2014, Clinical outcomes in traumatic brain injury patients on preinjury clopidogrel: a prospective analysis, J Trauma Acute Care Surg, 76, 817, 10.1097/TA.0b013e3182aafcf0 Miller, 2014, Practical considerations in emergency management of bleeding in the setting of target-specific oral anticoagulants, Am J Emerg Med, 32, 375, 10.1016/j.ajem.2013.11.044 Feeney, 2016, Compared to warfarin, direct oral anticoagulants are associated with lower mortality in patients with blunt traumatic intracranial hemorrhage, J Trauma Acute Care Surg, 81, 843, 10.1097/TA.0000000000001245 Hackham, 2012, Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and brain hemorrhage: a meta-analysis, Neurology, 79, 1862, 10.1212/WNL.0b013e318271f848 Wohlauer, 2012, Early platelet dysfunction: an unrecognized role in the acute coagulopathy of trauma, J Am Coll Surg, 214, 739, 10.1016/j.jamcollsurg.2012.01.050 Maegele, 2014, The coagulopathy of trauma, Eur J Trauma Emerg Surg, 40, 113, 10.1007/s00068-014-0389-4 Maegele, 2014, An update on the coagulopathy of trauma, Shock, 41, 21, 10.1097/SHK.0000000000000088 Castellino, 2014, Traumatic brain injury causes platelet adenosine diphosphate and arachidonic acid receptor inhibition independent of hemorrhagic shock in humans and rats, J Trauma Acute Care Surg, 76, 1169, 10.1097/TA.0000000000000216 Massaro, 2015, Thromboelastography defines late hypercoagulopathy after TBI: a pilot study, Neurocrit Care, 22, 45, 10.1007/s12028-014-0051-3 Di Battista, 2016, Sympathoadrenal activation is associated with acute traumatic coagulopathy and endotheliopathy in isolated brain injury, Shock, 46, 96, 10.1097/SHK.0000000000000642 Zhang, 2012, Traumatic brain injury-associated coagulopathy, J Neurotrauma, 29, 2597, 10.1089/neu.2012.2348 Cardenas, 2014, Mechnisms of trauma-induced coagulopathy, Curr Opin Hematol, 21, 404, 10.1097/MOH.0000000000000063 Atefi, 2016, Complement activation in trauma patients alters platelet activation, Shock, 46, 83, 10.1097/SHK.0000000000000675 Simard, 2009, Key role of sulfonyl urea receptor 1 in progressive secondary hemorrhage after brain contusion, J Neurotrauma, 26, 2257, 10.1089/neu.2009.1021 Patel, 2010, Glibenclamid reduces hippocampal injury and preserves rapid spatial learning in a model of traumatic brain injury, J Neuropathol Exp Neurol, 69, 1177, 10.1097/NEN.0b013e3181fbf6d6 De Oliveira, 2007, Plasma von Willebrand factor levels correlate with clinical outcome of severe traumatic brain injury, J Neurotrauma, 24, 1331, 10.1089/neu.2006.0159 Lu, 2004, Delayed thrombosis after traumatic brain injury in rats, J Neurotrauma, 21, 1756, 10.1089/neu.2004.21.1756 Nekludov, 2007, Platelet dysfunction in patients with severe traumatic brain injury, J Neurotrauma, 24, 1699, 10.1089/neu.2007.0322 Schnüriger, 2010, The impact of platelets on the progression of traumatic intracranial hemorrhage, J Trauma, 68, 881, 10.1097/TA.0b013e3181d3cc58 Davis, 2012, Platelet dysfunction is an early marker for traumatic brain injury-induced coagulopathy, Neurocrit Care, 18, 201, 10.1007/s12028-012-9745-6 Briggs, 2015, Platelet dysfunction and platelet transfusion in traumatic brain injury, J Surg Res, 193, 802, 10.1016/j.jss.2014.08.016 Schwarzmaier, 2010, Temporal profile of thrombogenesis in the cerebral microcirculation after traumatic brain injury in mice, J Neurotrauma, 27, 121, 10.1089/neu.2009.1114 Schwarzmaier, 2016, The formation of microthrombi in parenchymal microvessels after traumatic brain injury is independent of coagulation factor XI, J Neurotrauma, 33, 1634, 10.1089/neu.2015.4173 Deng, 2009, Blood–brain barrier breakdown by PAF and protection by XQ-1H due to antagonism of PAF effects, Eur J Pharmacol, 616, 43, 10.1016/j.ejphar.2009.06.017 Amara, 2008, Interaction between the coagulation and complement system, Adv Exp Med Biol, 632, 71 Amara, 2010, Molecular intercomunication between complement and coagulation systems, J Immunol, 185, 5628, 10.4049/jimmunol.0903678 Foley, 2016, Cross talk between coagulation and inflammation, Circ Res, 118, 1392, 10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.116.306853 Mackman, 2009, The role of tissue factor and factor VIIa in hemostasis, Anesth Analg, 108, 1447, 10.1213/ane.0b013e31819bceb1 Hoffman, 2009, Tissue factor in brain is not saturated with factor VIIa: implications for factor VIIa: dosing in intracerebral hemorrhage, Stroke, 40, 2882, 10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.555433 Pahatouridis, 2010, Coagulopathy in moderate head injury. The role of early administration of low molecular weight heparin, Brain Inj, 24, 1189, 10.3109/02699052.2010.490510 Pathak, 2005, Change in tissue thromboplastin content of the brain following trauma, Neurol India, 53, 178, 10.4103/0028-3886.16404 Giesen, 2000, Tissue factor on the loose, Semin Thromb Hemost, 26, 379, 10.1055/s-2000-8456 Owens, 2011, Microparticles in hemostasis and thrombosis, Circ Res, 108, 1284, 10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.110.233056 Tian, 2015, Brain-derived microparticles induce systemic coagulation in a murine model of traumatic brain injury, Blood, 125, 2151, 10.1182/blood-2014-09-598805 Nekludov, 2014, Formation of microparticles in the injured brain of patients with severe isolated traumatic brain injury, J Neurotrauma, 31, 1927, 10.1089/neu.2013.3168 Mooberry, 2016, Microparticle analysis in disorders of hemostatsis and thrombosis, Cytometry A, 89, 111, 10.1002/cyto.a.22647 Hijazi, 2015, Endogenous plasminogen activators mediate progressive intracreberal hemorrhage after traumatic brain injury in mice, Blood, 125, 2558, 10.1182/blood-2014-08-588442 Moore, 2014, Hyperfibrinolysis, physiologic fibrinolysis, and fibrinolysis shutdown: the spectrum of postinjury fibrinolysis and relevance to antifibrinolytic therapy, J Trauma Acute Care Surg, 77, 811, 10.1097/TA.0000000000000341 Sillesen, 2014, Assessment of coagulopathy, endothelial injury and inflammation after traumatic brain injury and hemorrhage in a porcine model, J Trauma Acute Care Surg, 76, 12, 10.1097/TA.0b013e3182aaa675 Di Battista, 2016, Inflammatory cytokine and chemokine profiles are associated with patient outcome and the hyperadrenergic state following acute brain injury, J Neuroinflammation, 13, 40, 10.1186/s12974-016-0500-3 Johansson, 2017, Shock induced endotheliopathy (SHINE) in acute critical illness: a unifying pathophysiologic mechanism, Crit Care, 21, 25, 10.1186/s13054-017-1605-5 Ostrowski, 2012, Endothelial glycocalyx degradation induces endogenous heparinization in patients with severe injury and early traumatic coagulopathy, J Trauma Acute Care Surg, 73, 60, 10.1097/TA.0b013e31825b5c10 Meng, 2003, The effect of temperature and pH on the activity of factor VIIa: implications for the efficacy of high-dose factor VIIa in hypothermic and acidotic patient, J Trauma, 55, 886, 10.1097/01.TA.0000066184.20808.A5 Martini, 2009, Coagulopathy by hypothermia and acidosis: mechanisms of thrombin generation and fibrinogen activity, J Trauma, 67, 202, 10.1097/TA.0b013e3181a602a7 Hess, 2006, The coagulopathy of trauma versus disseminated intravascular coagulation, J Trauma, 60, S12, 10.1097/01.ta.0000199545.06536.22 Mann, 2003, The dynamics of thrombin formation, Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Bio, 23, 17, 10.1161/01.ATV.0000046238.23903.FC Haas, 2015, Usefulness of standard plasma coagulation tests in the management of perioperative coagulopathic bleeding: is there any evidence?, Br J Anaesth, 114, 217, 10.1093/bja/aeu303 Davenport, 2011, Functional definition and characterization of acute traumatic coagulopathy, Crit Care Med, 39, 2652, 10.1097/CCM.0b013e3182281af5 Luddington, 2005, Thrombelastography/thrombolastometry, Clin Lab Haem, 27, 81, 10.1111/j.1365-2257.2005.00681.x Schöchl, 2013, Practical application of point-of-care coagulation testing to guide treatment decisions in trauma, J Acute Care Surg, 74, 1587, 10.1097/TA.0b013e31828c3171 Whiting, 2014, TEG and ROTEM: technology and clinical applications, Am J Hematol, 89, 228, 10.1002/ajh.23599 Hagemo, 2013, Evaluation of TEG and ROTEM inter-changeability in trauma patients, Injury, 44, 600, 10.1016/j.injury.2012.11.016 Rizoli, 2016, In trauma, conventional ROTEM and TEG results are not interchangeable but are similar in clinical applicability, Mil Med, 181, 117, 10.7205/MILMED-D-15-00166 Inaba, 2015, 2014 Consensus conference on viscoelastic test-based transfusion guidelines for early trauma resuscitation: report of the panel, J Trauma Acute Care Surg, 78, 1220, 10.1097/TA.0000000000000657 Da Luz, 2013, Thromboelastography (TEG): practical considerations on its clinical use in trauma resusciation, Scand J Trauma Resus Emerg Med, 21, 29, 10.1186/1757-7241-21-29 Windelov, 2011, The prognostic value of thromboelastography in identifying neurosurgical patients with worse prognosis, Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis, 22, 416, 10.1097/MBC.0b013e3283464f53 Cotton, 2011, Rapid thrombelastography delivers real-time results that predict transfusion within 1 hour of admission, J Trauma, 71, 407, 10.1097/TA.0b013e31821e1bf0 Olde Engberink, 2014, Rapid and correct prediction of thrombocytopenia and hypofibrinogenemia with rotational thromboelastometry in cardiac surgery, J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth, 28, 210, 10.1053/j.jvca.2013.12.004 Schlimp, 2014, The role of fibrinogen in trauma-induced coagulopathy, Hamostaseologie, 34, 29, 10.5482/HAMO-13-07-0038 Nakae, 2016, Time course of coagulation and fibrinolytic parameters in patients with traumatic brain injury, J Neurotrauma, 33, 688, 10.1089/neu.2015.4039 Stone, 2013, Platelet reactivity and clinical after coronary artery implantation of drug-eluting stents (ADAPT-DES): a prospective multicentre registry study, Lancet, 382, 614, 10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61170-8 Range, 2014, Thrombotic and bleeding events after coronary stenting according to clopidogrel and aspirin platelet reactivity: VerifyNow French registry (VERIFRENCHY), Arch Cardiovasc Dis, 107, 225, 10.1016/j.acvd.2014.03.004 Favaloro, 2015, Laboratory testing in the era of direct or non-vitamin K antagonist oral anticoagulants: a practical guide to measuring their activity and avoiding diagnositic errors, Semin Thromb Hemost, 41, 208, 10.1055/s-0035-1546827 Levi, 2015, A critical appraisal of point-of-care coagulation testing in critically ill patients, J Thromb Haemost, 13, 1960, 10.1111/jth.13126 Epstein, 2016, Normalization of coagulopathy is associated with improved outcome after isolated traumatic brain injury, J Clin Neurosci, 29, 64, 10.1016/j.jocn.2015.11.024 Spaite, 2017, Mortality and prehospital blood pressure in patients with major traumatic brain injury: implications for the hypotension threshold, JAMA Surgery, 152, 360, 10.1001/jamasurg.2016.4686 Spaite, 2017, The effect of combined out-of-hospital hypotension and hypoxia on mortality in major traumatic brain injury, Ann Emerg Med, 69, 62, 10.1016/j.annemergmed.2016.08.007 Johansson, 2014, How I treat patients with massive hemorrhage, Blood, 124, 3052, 10.1182/blood-2014-05-575340 Schäfer, 2015, Diversity in clinical management and protocols for the treatment of major bleeding trauma patients across European Level 1 Trauma centres, Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg Med, 23, 74, 10.1186/s13049-015-0147-6 Khan, 2013, A major haemorrhage protocol improves the delivery of blood component therapy and reduced waste in trauma massive transfusion, Injury, 44, 587, 10.1016/j.injury.2012.09.029 Desjardins, 2012, Hemoglobin levels and transfusions in neurocritically ill patients: a systematic review of comparative studies, Crit Care, 16, R54, 10.1186/cc11293 Boutin, 2016, Red blood cell transfusions in patients with traumatic brain injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis, Transfus Med Rev, 30, 15, 10.1016/j.tmrv.2015.08.004 Lelubre, 2016, Anemia management after acute brain injury, Crit Care, 20, 152, 10.1186/s13054-016-1321-6 Flückinger, 2010, Increasing hematocrit above 28% during early resuscitative phase is not associated with decreased mortality following severe traumatic brain injury, Acta Neurochir (Wien), 152, 627, 10.1007/s00701-009-0579-8 Robertson, 2014, Effect of erythropoietin and transfusion threshold on neurological recovery after traumatic brain injury: a randomized clinical trial, JAMA, 312, 36, 10.1001/jama.2014.6490 Veadantam, 2016, Progressive hemorrhagic injury after severe traumatic brain injury: effect of hemoglobin transfusion thresholds, J Neurosurg, 125, 1229, 10.3171/2015.11.JNS151515 Sekhon, 2012, Association of hemoglobin concentration and mortality in critically ill patients with severe traumatic brain injury, Crit Care, 16, R128, 10.1186/cc11431 Zygun, 2009, The effect of red blood cell transfusion on cerebral oxygenation and metabolism after severe traumatic brain injury, Crit Care Med, 37, 1074, 10.1097/CCM.0b013e318194ad22 Anand, 2016, Impact of massive transfusion and aging blood in acute trauma, Am Surg, 82, 957, 10.1177/000313481608201021 Warner, 2010, Transfusions and long-term functional outcomes in traumatic brain injury, J Neurosurg, 113, 539, 10.3171/2009.12.JNS091337 Anglin, 2013, Effects of platelet and plasma transfusion on outcome in traumatic brain injury with moderate bleeding diasthesis, J Neurosurg, 118, 676, 10.3171/2012.11.JNS12622 Carson, 2016, Clinical practice guidelines from the AABB: red blood cell transfusion thresholds and storage, JAMA, 316, 2015, 10.1001/jama.2016.9185 Boutin, 2016, Red blood cell transfusion in patients with traumatic brain injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis, Transfus Med Rev, 30, 15, 10.1016/j.tmrv.2015.08.004 Long, 2016, Red blood cell transfusion in the emergency department, J Emerg Med, 51, 120, 10.1016/j.jemermed.2016.04.010 Chang, 2017, Early plasma transfusion is associated with improved survival after isolated traumatic brain injury in patients with multifocal intracranial haemorrhage, Surgery, 161, 538, 10.1016/j.surg.2016.08.023 Etemadrezaie, 2007, The effect of fresh frozen plasma in severe closed head injury, Clin Neurol Neurosurg, 109, 166, 10.1016/j.clineuro.2006.09.001 Jokar, 2016, Ratio-based resuscitation in trauma patients with traumatic brain injury: is there a similar effect?, Am Surg, 82, 271, 10.1177/000313481608200322 Brasel, 2011, The association of blood component use ratios with the survival of massively transfused trauma patients with and without severe brain injury, J Trauma, 71, S343 Baharoglu, 2016, Platelet transfusion versus standard care after acute stroke due to spontaneous cerebral haemorrhage associated with antiplatelet therapy (PATCH): a randomised, open-label, phase 3 trial, Lancet, 387, 2605, 10.1016/S0140-6736(16)30392-0 Washington, 2011, Platelet transfusion: an unnecessary risk for mild traumatic brain injury patients on antiplatelet therapy, J Trauma, 71, 358, 10.1097/TA.0b013e318220ad7e Bachelani, 2011, Assessment of platelet transfusion for reversal of aspirin after traumatic brain injury, Surgery, 150, 836, 10.1016/j.surg.2011.07.059 Taylor, 2013, Is platelet transfusion efficient to restore platelet reactivity in patients who are responders to aspirin and/or clopidogrel before emergency surgery, J Trauma Acute Care Surg, 74, 1367, 10.1097/01586154-201305000-00027 Joseph, 2013, A prospective evaluation of platelet function in patients on antiplatelet therapy with traumatic intracranial hemorrhage, J Trauma Acute Care Surg, 75, 990, 10.1097/TA.0b013e3182a96591 Ferreira, 2013, The clinical use of prothrombin complex concentrate, J Emerg Med, 44, 1201, 10.1016/j.jemermed.2012.12.022 Franchini, 2010, Prothrombin complex concentrates: an update, Blood Transfus, 8, 149 Yanamadala, 2014, Reversal of warfarin associated coagulopathy with 4-factor prothrombin complex concentrate in traumatic brain injury and intracranial hemorrhage, J Clin Neurosci, 21, 1881, 10.1016/j.jocn.2014.05.001 Frontera, 2016, Guideline for the reversal of antithrombotics in intracranial haemorrhage: executive summary. A statement for healthcare professionals from the Neurocritical Care Society and the Society of Critical Care Medicine, Crit Care Med, 44, 2251, 10.1097/CCM.0000000000002057 Huyuh, 2014, Optimizing the dose of three-factor prothrombin complex concentrate in traumatic brain injury patients of warfarin therapy, Pharmacotherapy, 34, 260, 10.1002/phar.1384 Brown, 2016, Nonvitamin K antagonist oral anticoagulant activity: challenges in measurement and reversal, Crit Care, 20, 273, 10.1186/s13054-016-1422-2 Makris, 2010, Warfarin anticoagulation reversal: management of the asymptomatic and bleeding patient, J Thromb Thrombolysis, 29, 171, 10.1007/s11239-009-0412-5 Joseph, 2013, Prothrombin complex concentrate: an effective therapy in reversing the coagulopathy of traumatic brain injury, J Trauma Acute Care Surg, 74, 248, 10.1097/TA.0b013e3182788a40 Joseph, 2015, Use of prothrombin complex concentrate as an adjunct to fresh frozen plasma shortens the time to craniotomy in traumatic brain injured patients, Neurosurgery, 76, 601, 10.1227/NEU.0000000000000685 Matsushima, 2015, Prothrombin complex concentrate in trauma patients, Am J Surg, 209, 413, 10.1016/j.amjsurg.2014.08.019 Rourke, 2012, Fibrinogen levels during trauma hemorrhage, response to replacement therapy, and association with patient outcomes, J Thromb Haemost, 10, 1342, 10.1111/j.1538-7836.2012.04752.x Muradashvili, 2013, Role of fibrinogen in cerebrovascular dysfunction after traumatic brain injury, Brain Inj, 27, 1508, 10.3109/02699052.2013.823562 Narayan, 2008, Recombinant factor VIIa in traumatic hemorrhage: results of a dose-escalation clinical trial, Neurosurgery, 62, 776, 10.1227/01.neu.0000316898.78371.74 McQuay, 2009, The use of recombinant factor VIIa in coagulopathic traumatic brain injuries requiring emergent craniotomy: is it beneficial?, J Neurosurg, 111, 666, 10.3171/2009.4.JNS081611 Brown, 2010, Recombinant factor VIIa for the correction of coagulopathy before emergent craniotomy in blunt trauma patients, J Trauma, 68, 348352, 10.1097/TA.0b013e3181bbfb6b Perel, 2010, Haemostatic drugs for traumatic brain injury, Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 1, 10.1002/14651858.CD007877.pub2 Yuan, 2015, Low-dose recombinant factor VIIa for reversing coagulopathy in patients with isolated traumatic brain injury, J Crit Care, 30, 116, 10.1016/j.jcrc.2014.07.009 Nishijima, 2010, The efficacy of factor VIIa in emergency department patients with warfarin use and traumatic intracranial hemorrhage, Acad Emerg Med, 17, 244, 10.1111/j.1553-2712.2010.00666.x Lorand, 1980, Human factor XIII: fibrin-stabalizing factor, Prog Hemost Thromb, 5, 245 Gerlach, 2000, Factor XIII deficiency and postoperative hemorrhage after neurosurgical procedures, Surg Neurol, 54, 260, 10.1016/S0090-3019(00)00308-6 Vrettou, 2010, Factor XIII deficiency as a potential cause of supratentorial haemorrhage after posterior fossa surgery, Acta Neurochir (Wien), 152, 529, 10.1007/s00701-009-0432-0 Theusinger, 2010, In vitro factor XIII supplementation increases clot firmness in rotation thromboelastometry (ROTEM), Thromb Haemost, 104, 385, 10.1160/TH09-12-0858 Dirkmann, 2012, Factor XIII and tranexamic acid but not recombinant factor VIIa attenuate tissue plasminogen activator-induced hyperfibrinolysis in human whole blood, Anesth Analg, 114, 1182, 10.1213/ANE.0b013e31823b6683 Weber, 2015, Coagulation factor XIII: pathophysiology, clinic and therapy of factor XIII defienciency, Anästhesiol Intensivmed Notfallmed Schmerzther, 50, 684 Perel, 2012, CRASH-2 (Clinical Randomisation of an Antifibrinolytic in Significant Haemorrhage) intrancranial bleeding study: the effect of tranexamic acid in traumatic brain injury—a nested randomised placebo-controlled trial, Health Technol Assess, 16, 1, 10.3310/hta16130 Shakur, 2010, Effects of tranexamic acid on death, vascular occlusive events, and blood transfusion in trauma patients with significant haemorrhage (CRASH-2): a randomised, placebo-controlled trial, Lancet, 376, 23, 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60835-5 Silva, 2012, Regulation of fibrinolysis by C-terminated lysines operates through plasminogen and plasmin but not tissue-type plasminogen activator, J Thromb Haemost, 10, 2354, 10.1111/j.1538-7836.2012.04925.x Medcalf, 2015, The traumatic side of fibrinolysis, Blood, 125, 2457, 10.1182/blood-2015-02-629808 Dewan, 2012, CRASH-3-tranexamic acid for the treatment of significant traumatic brain injury: study protocol for an international radomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, Trials, 13, 87, 10.1186/1745-6215-13-87 Zehtabchi, 2014, Tranexamic acid for traumatic brain injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis, Am J Emerg Med, 32, 1503, 10.1016/j.ajem.2014.09.023 Yutthakasemsunt, 2013, Tranexamic acid for patients with traumatic brain injury: a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial, BMC Emerg Med, 13, 20, 10.1186/1471-227X-13-20 Myles, 2017, Tranexamic acid in patients undergoing coronary-artery surgery, N Engl J Med, 376, 136, 10.1056/NEJMoa1606424 Hunt, 2015, The current place of tranexamic acid in the management of bleeding, Anaesthesia, 70, 50, 10.1111/anae.12910 Naidech, 2014, Desmopressin improves platelet activity in acute intracerebral hemorrhage, Stroke, 45, 2451, 10.1161/STROKEAHA.114.006061 Jones, 2015, Anticoagulant antidotes start yielding phase III promise, Nat Rev Drug Discov, 15, 5, 10.1038/nrd4527 Pollack, 2015, Idarucizumab for dabigatran reversal, N Eng J Med, 373, 511, 10.1056/NEJMoa1502000 Crowther, 2015, Antidotes for novel oral anticoagulants: current status and future potential, Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 35, 1736, 10.1161/ATVBAHA.114.303402 Levy, 2016, When and how to use antidotes for the reversal of direct oral anticoagulants: guidance from the SSC of the ISTH, J Thromb Haemost, 14, 623, 10.1111/jth.13227 Jaeschke, 2008, Use of GRADE grid to reach decisions on clinical practice when consensus is elusive, BMJ, 337, a744, 10.1136/bmj.a744 Whiting, 2015, Viscoelastic point-of-care testing to assist with the diagnosis, management and monitoring of haemostasis: a systematic review and cost-effectiveness analysis, Health Technol Assess, 19, 1, 10.3310/hta19580 Gonzales, 2016, Goal-directed hemostatic resuscitation of trauma-induced coagulopathy: a pragmatic randomized clinical trial comparing a viscoelastic assay to conventional coagulation assays, Ann Surg, 263, 1051, 10.1097/SLA.0000000000001608 Wikkelsø, 2016, Thromboelastography (TEG) or thromboelastometry (ROTEM) to monitor haemostatic treatment versus usual care in adults or children with bleeding, Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 8 Hunt, 2015, Thromboelastography (TEG) and rotational thromboelastometry (ROTEM) for trauma induced coagulopathy in adult trauma patients with bleeding, Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2 Schöchl, 2012, Early and individualized goal-directed therapy for trauma-induced coagulopathy, Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg Med, 20, 15, 10.1186/1757-7241-20-15 Einersen, 2017, Rapid thromboelastography thresholds for goal-directed resuscitation of patients at risk for massive transfusion, J Trauma Acute Care Surg, 82, 114, 10.1097/TA.0000000000001270 Reiff, 2009, Traumatic brain injury is associated with the development of deep vein thrombosis independent of pharmacological prophylaxis, J Trauma, 66, 1436, 10.1097/TA.0b013e31817fdf1c Ekeh, 2010, Incidence and risk factors for deep venous thrombosis after moderate and severe brain injury, J Trauma, 68, 912 Shen, 2015, A systematic review of the benefits and risks of anticoagulation following traumatic brain injury, J Head Trauma Rehabil, 30, e29, 10.1097/HTR.0000000000000077 Geerts, 1994, A prospective study of venous thromboembolism after major trauma, N Engl J Med, 331, 1601, 10.1056/NEJM199412153312401 Chelladurai, 2013, Venous thromboembolism prophylaxis in patients with traumatic brain injury: a systematic review, F1000Res, 2, 132, 10.12688/f1000research.2-132.v1 Levy, 2010, Pharmacologic thromboprophylaxis is a risk factor for hemorrhage progression in a subset of patients with traumatic brain injury, J Trauma, 68, 886, 10.1097/TA.0b013e3181d27dd5 Scudday, 2011, Safety and efficacy of prophylactic anticoagulation in patients with traumatic brain injury, J Am Coll Surg, 213, 148, 10.1016/j.jamcollsurg.2011.02.027 Minshall, 2011, Safety and efficacy of heparin or enoxaparin prophylaxis in blunt trauma patients with a head abbreviated injury severity score > 2, J Trauma, 71, 396, 10.1097/TA.0b013e31822734c9 Mohseni, 2012, Venous thromboembolic events in isolated severe traumatic brain injury, J Emerg Trauma Shock, 5, 11, 10.4103/0974-2700.93102 Farooqui, 2013, Safety and efficacy of early thromboembolism chemoprophylaxis after intracranial hemorrhage from traumatic brain injury, J Neurosurg, 119, 1576, 10.3171/2013.8.JNS13424 Phelan, 2012, Pharmacologic venous thromboembolism prophylaxis after traumatic brain injury: a critical literature review, J Neurotrauma, 29, 1821, 10.1089/neu.2012.2459 Foreman, 2014, Chemoprophylaxis for venous thromboembolism in traumatic brain injury: a review and evidence-based protocol, Clin Neurol Neurosurg, 123, 109, 10.1016/j.clineuro.2014.05.017 Frisoli, 2016, Early deep vein thrombosis chemoprophylaxis in traumatic brain injury, Neurosurgery, 63, 171, 10.1227/01.neu.0000489749.74661.15 Jamjoom, 2014, Safety and efficacy of early pharmacological thromboprophylaxis in traumatic brain injury: systematic review and meta-analysis, J Neurotrauma, 30, 503, 10.1089/neu.2012.2584 Mesa-Galan, 2016, The effectiveness and safety of pharmacological prophylaxis against venous thromboembolism in patients with moderate to severe traumatic brain injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis, J Trauma Acute Care Surg, 81, 567, 10.1097/TA.0000000000001134 Kim, 2014, Early initiation of prophylactic heparin in severe traumatic brain injury is associated with accelerated improvement on brain imaging, J Emerg Trauma Shock, 7, 141, 10.4103/0974-2700.136846 Matsushima, 2016, Therapeutic anticoagulation in patients with traumatic brain injury, J Surg Res, 205, 186, 10.1016/j.jss.2016.06.042 Kwiatt, 2012, Is low-molecular-weight heparin safe for venous thromboembolism prophylaxis in patients with traumatic brain injury? A Western Trauma Association multicenter study, J Trauma Acute Care Surg, 73, 625, 10.1097/TA.0b013e318265cab9 Jamjoom, 2016, A national survey of thromboprophylaxis in traumatic brain injury in the United Kingdom, Br J Neurosurg, 30, 240, 10.3109/02688697.2016.1161170 Bühler, 2015, Factor XI antisense oligonucleotide for prevention of venous thrombosis, N Eng J Med, 372, 232, 10.1056/NEJMoa1405760 Connelly, 2016, Thrombelastometry-based dosing of enoxaparin for thromboprophylaxis in trauma and surgical patients: a randomized clinical trial, JAMA Surg, 151, e162069, 10.1001/jamasurg.2016.2069