Omega-3 fatty acids and rodent behavior

Salem, 1989, Omega-3 fatty acids: molecular and biochemical aspects, 109 Salem, 1986, Docosahexaenoic acid: membrane function and metabolism, 263 Mohrhauer, 1963, Alteration of the fatty acid composition of brain lipids by varying levels of dietary essential fatty acids, J. Neurochem., 10, 523, 10.1111/j.1471-4159.1963.tb09855.x Forrest, 1972, Age-related changes in the retinal capillaries and the fatty acid composition of retinal tissue of normal and essential fatty acid-deficient rats, Invest. Ophthalmol., 11, 760 Anderson, 1974, Polyunsaturated fatty acids of photoreceptor membranes, Exp. Eye Res., 18, 205, 10.1016/0014-4835(74)90149-3 Bourre, 1993, Dietary alpha-linolenic acid at 1.3g/kg maintains maximal docosahexaenoic acid concentration in brain, heart and liver of adult rats, J. Nutr., 123, 1313, 10.1093/jn/123.7.1313 Zar, 1977, Environmental temperature and the fatty acid compositions of house sparrow (Passer domesticus) muscle and brain, Com. Biochem. Physiol., 57A, 127, 10.1016/0300-9629(77)90362-0 Moriguchi, 2000, Behavioral deficits associated with dietary induction of decreased brain docosahexaenoic acid concentration, J. Neurochem., 75, 2563, 10.1046/j.1471-4159.2000.0752563.x Greiner, 2001, Olfactory discrimination deficits in n-3 fatty acid-deficient rats, Physiol. Behav., 72, 379, 10.1016/S0031-9384(00)00437-6 Tinoco, 1982, Dietary requirements and functions of alpha-linolenic acid in animals, Prog. Lipid Res., 21, 1, 10.1016/0163-7827(82)90015-7 Hoshiba, 1996, Automatic feeder for newborn rat use within 12 hours of birth, Lab. Anim. Sci., 35, 83 Hoshiba, 2004, Method for hand-feeding mouse pups with nursing bottles, Contemp. Top. Lab. Anim. Sci., 43, 50 Ward, 1996, Artificial rearing of infant rats on milk formula deficient in n-3 essential fatty acids: a rapid method for the production of experimental n-3 deficiency, Lipids, 31, 71, 10.1007/BF02522414 Lim S-, 2005, N-3 fatty acid deficiency induced by a modified artificial rearing method leads to poorer performance in spatial learning tasks, Pediatr. Res., 58, 741, 10.1203/01.PDR.0000180547.46725.CC Saste, 1998, Maternal diet fatty acid composition affects neurodevelopment in rat pups, J. Nutr., 128, 740, 10.1093/jn/128.4.740 Raygada, 1998, High maternal intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids during pregnancy in mice alters offspring aggressive behavior, immobility in the swim test, locomotor activity and brain protein kinase C activity, J. Nutr., 128, 2505 Calderon, 2004, Docosahexaenoic acid promotes neurite growth in hippocampal neurons, J. Neurochem., 90, 979, 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2004.02520.x Glozman, 1998, Intraamniotic ethyl docosahexaenoate administration protects fetal rat brain from ischemic stress, J. Neurochem., 70, 2484, 10.1046/j.1471-4159.1998.70062484.x Weisinger, 1996, The effect of docosahexaenoic acid on the electroretinogram of the guinea pig, Lipids, 31, 65, 10.1007/BF02522413 Wainwright, 1999, Water maze performance is unaffected in artificially reared rats fed diets supplemented with arachidonic acid and docosahexaenoic acid, J. Nutr., 129, 1079, 10.1093/jn/129.5.1079 Okaniwa, 1996, A high linoleate and a high α-linolenate diet induced changes in learning behavior of rats. Effects of a shift in diets and reversal of training stimuli, Biol. Pharm. Bull., 19, 536, 10.1248/bpb.19.536 Yehuda, 1993, Modulation of learning, pain thresholds, and thermoregulation in the rat by preparations of free purified α-linolenic and linoleic acids: determination of the optimal omega 3-to-omega 6 ratio, PNAS, 90, 345 Galli, 1971, Effects of dietary fatty acids on the fatty acid composition of brain ethanolamine phosphoglyceride: reciprocal replacement of n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 248, 449, 10.1016/0005-2760(71)90233-5 Salem, 1995, The nervous system has an absolute molecular species requirement for proper function, Molec. Membr. Biol., 12, 131, 10.3109/09687689509038508 Mai, 1981, A new prostaglandin, C22-PGF4 alpha, synthesized from docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6n3) by trout gill, Prostaglandins, 21, 691, 10.1016/0090-6980(81)90226-4 Karanian, 1995, Biosynthesis of docosanoids by human platelet: cardiovascular properties Zhang, 1998, N-3 fatty acid deficiency in the rat pineal gland: effects on phospholipid molecular species composition and endogenous levels of melatonin and lipoxygenase products, J. Lipid Res., 39, 1397, 10.1016/S0022-2275(20)32520-7 Kim, 1990, Stereochemical analysis of hydroxylated docosahexaenoates, Prostaglandins, 40, 473, 10.1016/0090-6980(90)90110-H Mitchell, 2003, DHA-rich phospholipids optimize G-protein-coupled signaling, J. Pediatrics, 143, S80, 10.1067/S0022-3476(03)00405-0 Niu, 2004, Reduced G protein-coupled signaling efficiency in retinal rod outer segments in response to n-3 fatty acid deficiency, J. Biol. Chem., 279, 31098, 10.1074/jbc.M404376200 Kim, 2000, Inhibition of neuronal apoptosis by docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3). Role of phosphatidylserine in antiapoptotic effect, J. Biol. Chem., 275, 35215, 10.1074/jbc.M004446200 M. Akbar, F. Calderon, Z. Wen, H.Y. Kim, Docosahexaenoic acid: a positive modulator of Akt signaling in neuronal survival, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2, 102(31) (2005) 10858–10863. Rojas, 2002, Long term effect of n-3 fatty acid deficiency on the expression of PPARα and PPARβ in rat ocular and brain tissues, Lipids, 37, 367, 10.1007/s1145-002-0904-4 Kitajka, 2004, Effects of dietary omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on brain gene expression, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 27,101, 10931, 10.1073/pnas.0402342101 Rojas, 2003, Gene expression analysis in human fetal retinal explants treated with docosahexaenoic acid, Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci., 44, 3170, 10.1167/iovs.02-1138 Serhan, 2004, Resolvins, docosatrienes, and neuroprotectins, novel omega-3-derived mediators, and their endogenous aspirin-triggered epimers, Lipids, 39, 1125, 10.1007/s11745-004-1339-7 Bazan, 2005, Neuroprotectin D1 (NPD1): a DHA-derived mediator that protects brain and retina against cell injury-induced oxidative stress, Brain Pathol., 15, 159, 10.1111/j.1750-3639.2005.tb00513.x Lands, 1992, Biochemistry and physiology of n-3 fatty acids, FASEB J., 6, 2530, 10.1096/fasebj.6.8.1592205 Spector, 1999, Essentiality of fatty acids, Lipids, 34, S1, 10.1007/BF02562220 Greiner, 2003, Docosapentaenoic acid does not completely replace DHA in n-3 FA-deficient rats during early development, Lipids, 38, 431, 10.1007/s11745-003-1080-2 Salem, 2005, Non-reciprocal replacement of docosahexaenoic acid in the rat retina, Exp. Eye Res., 81, 655, 10.1016/j.exer.2005.04.003 Moriguchi, 2001, Reversal of docosahexaenoic acid deficiency in the rat brain, retina, liver, and serum, J. Lipid Res., 42, 419, 10.1016/S0022-2275(20)31666-7 Youyou, 1986, Recovery of altered fatty acid composition induced by a diet devoid of n-3 fatty acids in myelin, synaptosomes, mitochondria, and microsomes of developing rat brain, J. Neurochem., 46, 224, 10.1111/j.1471-4159.1986.tb12950.x Bourre, 1987, Slow recovery of the fatty acid composition of sciatic nerve in rats fed a diet initially low in n-3 fatty acids, Lipids, 22, 535, 10.1007/BF02540371 Carrie, 2000, Phospholipid supplementation reverses behavioral and biochemical alterations induced by n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid deficiency in mice, Lipid Res., 41, 473, 10.1016/S0022-2275(20)34486-2 Ikemoto, 2001, Reversibility of n-3 fatty acid deficiency-induced alterations of learning behavior in the rat: level of n-6 fatty acids as another critical factor, J. Lipid Res., 42, 1655, 10.1016/S0022-2275(20)32220-3 Weisinger, 2001, Perinatal omega-3 fatty acid deficiency affects blood pressure later in life, Nat. Med., 7, 258, 10.1038/85354 Kodas, 2002, Reversibility of n-3 fatty acid deficiency-induced changes in dopaminergic neurotransmission in rats: critical role of developmental stage, J. Lipid Res., 43, 1209, 10.1194/jlr.M200132-JLR200 Anderson, 2005, Can prenatal N-3 fatty acid deficiency be completely reversed after birth? Effects on retinal and brain biochemistry and visual function in rhesus monkeys, Pediatr. Res., 58, 865, 10.1203/01.pdr.0000182188.31596.5a Armitage, 2003, Increased blood pressure later in life may be associated with perinatal n-3 fatty acid deficiency, Lipids, 38, 459, 10.1007/s11745-003-1084-y Moriguchi, 2003, Recovery of brain docosahexaenoate leads to recovery of spatial task performance, J. Neurochem., 87, 297, 10.1046/j.1471-4159.2003.01966.x Bourre, 1989, The effects of dietary α-linolenic acid on the composition of nerve membranes, enzymatic activity, amplitude of electrophysiological parameters, resistance to poisons and performance of learning tasks in rats, J. Nutr., 119, 1880, 10.1093/jn/119.12.1880 Yamamoto, 1988, Effect of the dietary α-linolenate/linoleate balance on lipid compositions and learning ability of rats. II. Discrimination process, extinction process, and glycolipid compositions, J. Lipid Res., 29, 1013, 10.1016/S0022-2275(20)38463-7 Tinoko, 1978, Linolenic acid deficiency: changes in fatty acid patterns in female and male rats raised on a linolenic acid-deficient diet for two generations, Lipids, 13, 6, 10.1007/BF02533360 Salem, 2004, What are the consequences of a deficiency in brain and retinal DHA?, J. Lipid Nutr., 13, 11, 10.4010/jln.13.11 Nakashima, 1993, Effect of a high linoleate and a high α-linolenate diet on general behavior and drug sensitivity in mice, J. Lipid Res., 34, 239, 10.1016/S0022-2275(20)40751-5 Belzung, 1998, α -linolenic acid deficiency modifies distractibility but not anxiety and locomotion in rats during aging, J. Nutr., 128, 1537, 10.1093/jn/128.9.1537 Enslen, 1991, Effect of low intake of n-3 fatty acids during development on brain phospholipid fatty acid composition and exploratory behavior in rats, Lipids, 26, 203, 10.1007/BF02543972 Wainwright, 1997, Arachidonic acid offsets the effects on mouse brain and behavior of a diet with a low (n-6):(n-3) ration and very high levels of docosahexaenoic acid, J. Nutr., 127, 184, 10.1093/jn/127.1.184 Umezawa, 1995, Dietary α -linolenate/linoleate balance influences learning and memory in the senescence-accelerated mouse (SAM), Brain Res., 669, 225, 10.1016/0006-8993(94)01250-L Levant, 2004, Decreased brain docosahexaenoic acid during development alters dopamine-related behaviors in adult rats that are differentially affected by dietary remediation, Behav. Brain Res., 152, 49 Carrie, 2000, Diets containing long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids affect behavior differently during development than aging in mice, Br. J. Nutr., 83, 439 Chalon, 1998, Dietary fish oil affects monoaminergic neurotransmission and behavior in rats, J. Nutr., 128, 2512, 10.1093/jn/128.12.2512 Frances, 1996, Effect of dietary α-linolenic acid deficiency on habituation, Life Sci., 58, 1805, 10.1016/0024-3205(96)00164-6 Sagvolden, 1998, Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder—from brain dysfunctions to behavior, Behav. Brain Res., 94, 1 Sleator, 1981, Can the physician diagnose hyperactivity in the office?, Pediatrics, 67, 13, 10.1542/peds.67.1.13 Sagvolden, 2000, Behavioral validation of the spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR) as an animal model of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (AD/HD), Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 24, 31, 10.1016/S0149-7634(99)00058-5 Wei, 1987, Phospholipids and fatty acid profile of brain synaptosomal membrane from normotensive and hypertensive rats, Int. J. Boichem., 19, 1225, 10.1016/0020-711X(87)90107-8 Lipska, 1993, Postpubertal emergence of hyperresponsiveness to stress and amphetamine after neonatal excitotoxic hippocampal damage: a potential animal model of schizophrenia, Neuropsychopharmacology, 9, 67, 10.1038/npp.1993.44 Delion, 1994, Chronic dietary alpha-linolenic acid deficiency alters dopaminergic and serotoninergic neurotransmission in rats, J. Nutr., 124, 2466, 10.1093/jn/124.12.2466 Zimmer, 1998, Chronic n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid diet-deficiency acts on dopamine metabolism in the rat frontal cortex: a microdialysis study, Neurosci. Lett., 240, 177, 10.1016/S0304-3940(97)00938-5 Zimmer, 2002, The dopamine mesocorticolimbic pathway is affected by deficiency in n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 75, 662, 10.1093/ajcn/75.4.662 Zimmer, 2000, Modification of dopamine neurotransmission in the nucleus accumbens of rats deficient in n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, J. Lipid Res., 41, 32, 10.1016/S0022-2275(20)32071-X Kodas, 2002, Neither the density nor the function of striatal dopamine transporters were influenced by chronic n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid deficiency in rodents, Neurosci. Lett., 321, 95, 10.1016/S0304-3940(01)02481-8 Byne, 1999, The neurochemistry of schizophrenia, 236 Takeuchi, 2003, Possible regulatory mechanism of DHA-induced anti-stress reaction in rats, Brain Res., 964, 136, 10.1016/S0006-8993(02)04113-6 Frances, 1995, Effects of dietary α-linolenic acid deficiency on neuromuscular and cognitive functions in mice, Life Sci., 57, 1935, 10.1016/0024-3205(95)02180-Q File, 1993, Trial 2 in the elevated plus-maze: a different form of fear?, Psychopharmacology (Berlin), 111, 491, 10.1007/BF02253541 Takeda, 1998, Changes in head-dipping behavior in the hole-board test reflect the anxiolytic state in mice, Eur. J. Pharmacol., 350, 21, 10.1016/S0014-2999(98)00223-4 Hibbeln, 1997, Do plasma polyunsaturates predict hostility and depression?, World Rev. Nutr. Diet, 82, 175, 10.1159/000059633 Stevens, 1996, Omega-3 fatty acids in boys with behavior, learning, and health probems, Physiol. Behav., 59, 915, 10.1016/0031-9384(95)02207-4 Hamazaki, 1996, The effect of docosahexaenoic acid on aggression in young adults. A placebo-controlled double-blind study, J. Clin. Invest., 97, 1129, 10.1172/JCI118507 Iribarren, 2004, Dietary intake of n-3, n-6 fatty acids and fish: relationship with hostility in young adults—the CARDIA study, Eur. J. Clin. Nutr., 58, 24, 10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601739 Hilakivi-Clarke, 1996, High-fat diet induces aggressive behavior in male mice and rats, Life Sci., 58, 1653, 10.1016/0024-3205(96)00140-3 Miachon, 2001, Nutritional parameters modify muricidal behavior of male Wistar rats: preventive effects of amino aids and 4’ Cl diazepam, Life Sci., 69, 2745, 10.1016/S0024-3205(01)01344-3 Augier, 2003, Polyunsaturated fatty acids in the blood of spontaneously or induced muricidal male Wistar rats, Brain Res. Bull., 60, 161, 10.1016/S0361-9230(03)00029-7 DeMar, 2005, Dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid deprivation in rats following weaning increases their behavioral depression and aggression test scores, J. Lipid Res., 47, 172, 10.1194/jlr.M500362-JLR200 Porsolt, 1977, Behavioral despair in mice: a preliminary screening test for antidepressants, Arch. Int. Pharmacodyn., 229, 327 Vogel, 1990, A new animal model of endogenous depression: a summary of present finding, Neurosci Biobehav. Rev., 14, 85, 10.1016/S0149-7634(05)80164-2 Weiss, 1981, Behavioral depression produced by uncontrollable stressor: relationship to norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin levels in various regions of rat brain, Brain Res. Rev., 3, 167, 10.1016/0165-0173(81)90005-9 Hibbeln, 2002, Seafood consumption, the DHA content of mothers’ milk and prevalence rates of postpartum depression: a cross-national, ecological analysis, J. Affect Disord., 69, 15, 10.1016/S0165-0327(01)00374-3 Otto, 2003, Increased risk of postpartum depressive symptoms is associated with slower normalization after pregnancy of the functional docosahexaenoic acid status, Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids, 69, 237, 10.1016/S0952-3278(03)00090-5 Hibbeln, 2001, Omega-3 fatty acids and psychiatric disorders, 311 Hibbeln, 1998, Fish consumption and major depression, Lancet, 351, 1213, 10.1016/S0140-6736(05)79168-6 Peet, 1998, Depletion of omega-3 fatty acid levels in red blood cell membranes of depressive patients, Biol. Psychiatry, 43, 315, 10.1016/S0006-3223(97)00206-0 Maes, 1999, Lowered omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in serum phospholipids and cholesteryl esters of depressed patients, Psychiat. Res., 85, 275, 10.1016/S0165-1781(99)00014-1 Meltzer, 1990, Role of serotonin in depression, Ann. NY Acad. Sci., 600, 486, 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1990.tb16904.x Stanley, 1983, Increased serotonin-2 binding sites in frontal cortex of suicide victims, Lancet, 1, 214, 10.1016/S0140-6736(83)92590-4 Innis, 2001, Dietary fatty acid composition in pregnancy alters neurite membrane fatty acids and dopamine in newborn rat brain, J. Nutr., 131, 118, 10.1093/jn/131.1.118 Kodas, 2004, Serotoninergic neurotransmission is affected by n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in the rat, J. Neurochem., 89, 695, 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2004.02401.x Chaouloff, 2000, Serotonin, stress and corticoids, J. Psychopharmacol., 14, 139, 10.1177/026988110001400203 Zangen, 1999, Increased catecholamine levels in specific brain regions of a rat model of depression: normalization by chronic antidepressant treatment, Brain Res., 824, 243, 10.1016/S0006-8993(99)01214-7 Logan, 2003, Neurobehavioral aspects of omega-3 fatty acids: possible mechanism and therapeutic value in major depression, Altern. Med. Rev., 8, 410 Green, 2005, Increased arachidonic acid concentration in the brain of Flinders Sensitive Line rats, an animal model of depression, J. Lipid Res., 46, 1093, 10.1194/jlr.C500003-JLR200 Naliwaiko, 2004, Effects of fish oil on the central nervous system: a new potential antidepressant?, Nutr. Neurosci., 7, 91, 10.1080/10284150410001704525 Frances, 2000, Nutritional (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids influence the behavioral responses to positive events in mice, Neurosci Lett., 285, 223, 10.1016/S0304-3940(00)01065-X Wainwright, 1992, Do essential fatty acids play a role in brain and behavioral development?, Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 16, 193, 10.1016/S0149-7634(05)80180-0 Carlson, 1999, Polyunsaturated fatty acid status and neurodevelopment: a summary and critical analysis of the literature, Lipids, 34, 171, 10.1007/s11745-999-0351-2 Salem, 1993, Are omega-3 fatty acids essential nutrients for mammals?, vol. 72, 128 Hamosh, 1998, Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, Biol. Neonates, 74, 106, 10.1159/000014017 Reisbick, 1997, Omega-3 fatty acid deficiency and behavior. A critical review and directions for future research, 397 Yehuda, 1997, Effects of essential fatty acid preparation (SR-3) on brain lipids, biochemistry, and behavioral and cognitive functions, 427 McCann, 2005, Is docosahexaenoic acid, an n-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid, required for development of normal brain function? An overview of evidence from cognitive and behavioral tests in humans and animals, J. Clin. Nutr., 82, 281, 10.1093/ajcn/82.2.281 Morris, 1984, Developments of a water-maze procedure for studying spatial learning in the rat, J. Neurosci. Methods, 11, 47, 10.1016/0165-0270(84)90007-4 Stewart, 1993, The water maze, vol. 1, 107 Lim, 2005, An extraordinary degree of structural specificity is required in neural phospholipids for optimal brain function: n-6 docosapentaenoic acid substitution for docosahexaenoic acid leads to a loss in spatial task performance, J. Neurochem., 95, 848, 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2005.03427.x Wainwright, 1998, Effects of dietary n-3 fatty acid deficiency on Morris water-maze performance and amphetamine-induced conditioned place preference in rats, Nutr. Neurosci., 1, 281, 10.1080/1028415X.1998.11747238 Greiner, 1999, Rats with low levels of brain docosahexaenoic acid show impaired performance in olfactory-based and spatial learning tasks, Lipids, 34, 239, 10.1007/BF02562305 Clements, 2003, Spontaneously hypertensive and Wistar Kyoto rats differ in delayed matching-to-place performance and response to dietary long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, Dev. Psychobiol., 43, 57, 10.1002/dev.10121 Hendley, 2000, WKHA rats with genetic hyperactivity and hyperreactivity to stress: A review, Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 24, 41, 10.1016/S0149-7634(99)00050-0 Mills, 1992, Metabolism of n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in normotensive and hypertensive rats, 345 Gattu, 1997, Cognitive impairment in spontaneously hypertensive rats: Role of central nicotinic receptors, J. Brain Res., 771, 89, 10.1016/S0006-8993(97)00793-2 Barcelo-Coblijn, 2003, Modification by docosahexaenoic acid of age-induced alterations in gene expression and molecular composition of rat brain phospholipids, PNAS, 100, 11321, 10.1073/pnas.1734008100 Okuyama, 1996, Dietary fatty acids—the N-6/N-3 balance and chronic elderly diseases. Excess linoleic acid and relative N-3 deficiency syndrome seen in Japan, Prog. Lipid Res., 35, 409, 10.1016/S0163-7827(96)00012-4 Neuringer, 1988, The essentiality of n-3 fatty acids for the development and function of the retina and brain, Annu. Rev. Nutr., 8, 517, 10.1146/annurev.nu.08.070188.002505 Carrie, 2002, Docosahexaenoic acid-rich phospholipid supplementation: effect on behavior, learning ability, and retinal function in control and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid deficient old mice, Nutr. Neurosci., 5, 43, 10.1080/10284150290007074 Salem, 2001, Mechanisms of action of docosahexaenoic acid in the nervous system, Lipids, 36, 945, 10.1007/s11745-001-0805-6 Lu, 1993, Odor matching and odor memory in the rat, Physiol. Behav., 53, 795, 10.1016/0031-9384(93)90191-H Yamamoto, 1991, Effects of high-linoleate and a high-α-linolenate diet on the learning ability of aged rats, J. Gerontol. Biol. Sci., 46, B17, 10.1093/geronj/46.1.B17 Catalan, 2002, Cognitive deficits in docosahexaenoic acid-deficient rats, Behav. Neurosci., 116, 1022, 10.1037/0735-7044.116.6.1022 Gamoh, 1999, Chronic administration of docosahexaenoic acid improves reference memory-related learning ability in young rats, Neuroscience, 93, 237, 10.1016/S0306-4522(99)00107-4 Wainwright, 2000, Nutrition and behavior: the role of n-3 fatty acids in cognitive function, Br. J. Nutr., 83, 337 Gamoh, 2001, Chronic administration of docosahexaenoic acid improves the performance of radial arm maze task in aged rats, Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol., 28, 266, 10.1046/j.1440-1681.2001.03437.x Tanabe, 2004, Improvement of spatial cognition with dietary docosahexaenoic acid is associated with an increase in Fos expression in rat CA1 hippocampus, Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol., 31, 700, 10.1111/j.1440-1681.2004.04068.x Hashimoto, 2005, Chronic administration of docosahexaenoic acid ameliorates the impairment of spatial cognition learning ability in amyloid β-infused rats, J. Nutr., 135, 549, 10.1093/jn/135.3.549 Yavin, 2001, Docosahexaenoic acid accumulation in the prenatal brain: prooxidant and antioxidant features, J. Mol. Neurosci., 16, 229, 10.1385/JMN:16:2-3:229 Sugimoto, 2002, Effect of docosahexaenoic acid-fortified Chlorella vulgaris strain CK22 on the radial maze performance in aged mice, Biol. Pharm. Bull., 25, 1090, 10.1248/bpb.25.1090 Garcia-Calatayud, 2005, Brain docosahexaenoic acid status and learning in young rats submitted to dietary long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid deficiency and supplementation limited to lactation, Pediatr. Res., 57, 719, 10.1203/01.PDR.0000156506.03057.AD Hashimoto, 2002, Docosahexaenoic acid provides protection from impairment of learning ability in Alzheimer's disease model rats, J. Neurochem., 81, 1084, 10.1046/j.1471-4159.2002.00905.x Takeuchi, 2002, Influence of a dietary n-3 fatty acid deficiency on the cerebral catecholamine contents, EEG and learning ability in rat, Behav. Brain Res., 131, 193, 10.1016/S0166-4328(01)00392-8 Wainwright, 1998, Issues of design and analysis relating to the use of multiparous species in developmental nutritional studies, J. Nutr., 128, 661, 10.1093/jn/128.3.661 Wainwright, 2002, Dietary essential fatty acids and brain function: a developmental perspective on mechanisms, Proc. Nutr. Soc., 61, 61, 10.1079/PNS2001130 Shaldubina, 2002, Lack of effect of eicosapentaenoic acid in Porsolt forced swimming test model of depression, Acta Neuropsychol., 14, 203, 10.1034/j.1601-5215.2002.140501.x Carlezon, 2005, Antidepressant-like effects of uridine and omega-3 fatty acids are potentiated by combined treatment in rats, Biol. Psychiatry, 57, 343, 10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.11.038