Prevalence of Diabetic Retinopathy in Various Ethnic Groups: A Worldwide Perspective

Agardh, 1997, The association between retinopathy, nephropathy, cardiovascular disease and long-term metabolic control in type I diabetes mellitus: a 5 year follow-up study of 442 adult patients in routine care, Diabetes Res Clin Pract, 35, 113, 10.1016/S0168-8227(97)01386-7 Agarwal, 2006, Diabetic retinopathy in type II diabetics detected by targeted screening versus newly diagnosed in general practice, Ann Acad Med Singapore, 35, 531, 10.47102/annals-acadmedsg.V35N8p531 Al-Maskari, 2007, Prevalence of diabetic retinopathy in the United Arab Emirates: a cross-sectional survey, BMC Ophthalmol, 7, 11, 10.1186/1471-2415-7-11 Alwakeel, 2008, Diabetes complications in 1952 type 2 diabetes mellitus patients managed in a single institution in Saudi Arabia, Ann Saudi Med, 28, 260, 10.4103/0256-4947.51702 1998, Screening for retinopathy in the pediatric patient with type 1 diabetes mellitus. American Academy of Pediatrics. Sections on Endocrinology and Ophthalmology, Pediatrics, 101, 313, 10.1542/peds.101.2.313 Amini, 2009, Prevalence of macro- and microvascular complications among patients with type 2 diabetes in Iran: a systematic review, Diabetes Res Clin Pract, 83, 18, 10.1016/j.diabres.2008.10.010 Appiah, 1991, Delayed diagnosis of diabetic retinopathy in black and Hispanic patients with diabetes mellitus, Ann Ophthalmol, 23, 156 Arar, 2008, Heritability of the severity of diabetic retinopathy: the FIND-Eye study, Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 49, 3839, 10.1167/iovs.07-1633 Arfken, 1994, Retinopathy in African Americans and whites with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, Arch Intern Med, 154, 2597, 10.1001/archinte.1994.00420220097011 Bachmann, 2003, Socio-economic inequalities in diabetes complications, control, attitudes and health service use: a cross-sectional study, Diabet Med, 20, 921, 10.1046/j.1464-5491.2003.01050.x Backlund, 1997, New blindness in diabetes reduced by more than one-third in Stockholm County, Diabet Med, 14, 732, 10.1002/(SICI)1096-9136(199709)14:9<732::AID-DIA474>3.0.CO;2-J Baker, 1998, Demographic and clinical characteristics of patients with diabetes presenting to an urban public hospital ophthalmology clinic, Ophthalmology, 105, 1373, 10.1016/S0161-6420(98)98015-0 Balarajan, 1998, Trends in mortality from diabetes in England and Wales among those born in the Indian subcontinent and the Caribbean Commonwealth, Ethn Health, 3, 55, 10.1080/13557858.1998.9961848 Bamashmus, 2009, Diabetic retinopathy, visual impairment and ocular status among patients with diabetes mellitus in Yemen: A hospital-based study, Indian J Ophthalmol, 57, 293, 10.4103/0301-4738.53055 Barrett, 2009, Genome-wide association study and meta-analysis find that over 40 loci affect risk of type 1 diabetes, Nat Genet, 41, 703, 10.1038/ng.381 Berinstein, 1997, The prevalence of diabetic retinopathy and associated risk factors among Sioux Indians, Diabetes Care, 20, 757, 10.2337/diacare.20.5.757 Beulens, 2008, Alcohol consumption and risk of microvascular complications in type 1 diabetes patients: the EURODIAB Prospective Complications Study, Diabetologia, 51, 1631, 10.1007/s00125-008-1091-z Beynat, 2009, Screening for diabetic retinopathy in a rural French population with a mobile non-mydriatic camera, Diabetes Metab, 35, 49, 10.1016/j.diabet.2008.07.002 Bojestig, 1998, Unchanged incidence of severe retinopathy in a population of type I diabetic patients with marked reduction of nephropathy, Diabet Med, 15, 863, 10.1002/(SICI)1096-9136(199810)15:10<863::AID-DIA665>3.0.CO;2-O Bonney, 1995, Development and progression of diabetic retinopathy: adolescents at risk, Diabet Med, 12, 967, 10.1111/j.1464-5491.1995.tb00407.x Borchers, 2010, The geoepidemiology of type 1 diabetes, Autoimmun Rev, 9, A355, 10.1016/j.autrev.2009.12.003 Brazionis, 2010, Is risk of diabetic retinopathy lower in Australia’s Greek-born migrants?, Diabet Med, 27, 660, 10.1111/j.1464-5491.2010.03005.x Brian, 2010, Diabetic eye disease among adults in Fiji with self-reported diabetes, Clin Experiment Ophthalmol, 38, 867, 10.1111/j.1442-9071.2010.02361.x Brooks, 1999, Diabetic retinopathy and nephropathy in Fiji: comparison with data from an Australian diabetes centre, Aust NZ J Ophthalmol, 27, 9, 10.1046/j.1440-1606.1999.00146.x Brown, 2003, Diabetic retinopathy: contemporary prevalence in a well-controlled population, Diabetes Care, 26, 2637, 10.2337/diacare.26.9.2637 Burger, 1986, Prevalence and development of retinopathy in children and adolescents with type 1 (insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus. A longitudinal study, Diabetologia, 29, 17, 10.1007/BF02427275 Cahill, 1997, Prevalence of diabetic retinopathy in patients with diabetes mellitus diagnosed after the age of 70 years, Br J Ophthalmol, 81, 218, 10.1136/bjo.81.3.218 Carter, 2000, Public health and clinical implications of high hemoglobin A1c levels and weight in younger adult Native American people with diabetes, Arch Intern Med, 160, 3471, 10.1001/archinte.160.22.3471 Carter, 2008, Ethnicity and social deprivation independently influence metabolic control in children with type 1 diabetes, Diabetologia, 51, 1835, 10.1007/s00125-008-1106-9 2010 Chang, 2000, Epidemiologic study of type 2 diabetes in Taiwan, Diabetes Res Clin Pract, 50, S49, 10.1016/S0168-8227(00)00179-0 Chang, 1990, A comparison of newly and previously diagnosed diabetics in Taiwan, J Form Med Assoc, 89, 264 Chaturvedi, 1996, Differences in mortality and morbidity in African Caribbean and European people with non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus: results of 20-year follow-up of a London cohort of a multinational study, BMJ, 313, 848, 10.1136/bmj.313.7061.848 Chaturvedi, 2008, Effect of candesartan on prevention (DIRECT-Prevent 1) and progression (DIRECT-Protect 1) of retinopathy in type 1 diabetes: randomised, placebo-controlled trials, Lancet, 372, 1394, 10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61412-9 Chaturvedi, 1998, Effect of lisinopril on progression of retinopathy in normotensive people with type 1 diabetes. The EUCLID Study Group. EURODIAB Controlled Trial of Lisinopril in Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus, Lancet, 351, 28, 10.1016/S0140-6736(97)06209-0 Chen, 1992, Prevalence and risk factors of diabetic retinopathy among noninsulin-dependent diabetic subjects, Am J Ophthalmol, 114, 723, 10.1016/S0002-9394(14)74051-6 Chen, 1995, Incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy among non-insulin-dependent diabetic subjects: a 4-year follow-up, Int J Epidemiol, 24, 787, 10.1093/ije/24.4.787 Chetthakul, 2006, Thailand diabetes registry project: prevalence of diabetic retinopathy and associated factors in type 2 diabetes mellitus, J Med Assoc Thai, 89, S27 Chetthakul, 2006, Thailand diabetes registry project: prevalence of diabetic retinopathy and associated factors in type 1 diabetes mellitus, J Med Assoc Thai, 89, S17 Chiang, 2010, Rapid assessment of avoidable blindness in the Occupied Palestinian Territories, PLoS One, 5, e11854, 10.1371/journal.pone.0011854 Chin, 1998, Diabetes in the African American Medicare population. Morbidity, quality of care, and resource utilization, Diabetes Care, 21, 1090, 10.2337/diacare.21.7.1090 Collins, 1995, High prevalence of diabetic retinopathy and nephropathy in Polynesians of Western Samoa, Diabetes Care, 18, 1140, 10.2337/diacare.18.8.1140 Congdon, 2003, Important causes of visual impairment in the world today, JAMA, 290, 2057, 10.1001/jama.290.15.2057 Connolly, 2000, Diabetes prevalence and socioeconomic status: a population based study showing increased prevalence of type 2 diabetes mellitus in deprived areas, J Epidemiol Community Health, 54, 173, 10.1136/jech.54.3.173 Conway, 2010, Are hemoglobin levels elevated in type 1 diabetes?, Diabetes Care, 33, 341, 10.2337/dc09-0713 Cruickshank, 1987, Black West Indian and matched white diabetics in Britain compared with diabetics in Jamaica: body mass, blood pressure, and vascular disease, Diabetes Care, 10, 170, 10.2337/diacare.10.2.170 Cugati, 2006, Five-year incidence and progression of vascular retinopathy in persons without diabetes: the Blue Mountains Eye Study, Eye, 20, 1239, 10.1038/sj.eye.6702085 Dandona, 1999, Population based assessment of diabetic retinopathy in an urban population in southern India, Br J Ophthalmol, 83, 937, 10.1136/bjo.83.8.937 Danielsen, 1982, Prevalence of retinopathy and proteinuria in type 1 diabetics in Iceland, Acta Med Scand, 212, 277, 10.1111/j.0954-6820.1982.tb03213.x Danne, 1994, Long-term glycemic control has a nonlinear association to the frequency of background retinopathy in adolescents with diabetes. Follow-up of the Berlin Retinopathy Study, Diabetes Care, 17, 1390, 10.2337/diacare.17.12.1390 Das, 1994, The prevalence of eye disease in Leicester: a comparison of adults of Asian and European descent, J R Soc Med, 87, 219 De Block, 2005, Impact of overweight on chronic microvascular complications in type 1 diabetic patients, Diabetes Care, 28, 1649, 10.2337/diacare.28.7.1649 Dedov, 2009, Prevalence of diabetic retinopathy and cataract in adult patients with type 1 and type 2 diabetes in Russia, Rev Diabet Stud, 6, 124, 10.1900/RDS.2009.6.124 Delcourt, 1998, Low prevalence of long-term complications in non–insulin–dependent diabetes mellitus in France: a multicenter study. CODIAB-INSERM-ZENECA Pharma Study Group, J Diabetes Complicat, 12, 88, 10.1016/S1056-8727(97)98005-3 2006, Incidence and trends of childhood type 1 diabetes worldwide 1990–1999, Diabet Med, 23, 857, 10.1111/j.1464-5491.2006.01925.x Donaghue, 2003, Do all prepubertal years of diabetes duration contribute equally to diabetes complications?, Diabetes Care, 26, 1224, 10.2337/diacare.26.4.1224 Dowse, 1998, Prevalence and risk factors for diabetic retinopathy in the multiethnic population of Mauritius, Am J Epidemiol, 147, 448, 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a009470 Ebeling, 1997, Occurrence and interrelationships of complications in insulin-dependent diabetes in Finland, Acta Diabetol, 34, 33, 10.1007/s005920050062 el Haddad, 1998, Prevalence and risk factors for diabetic retinopathy among Omani diabetics, Br J Ophthalmol, 82, 901, 10.1136/bjo.82.8.901 El-Asrar, 1998, Risk factors for diabetic retinopathy among Saudi diabetics, Int Ophthalmol, 22, 155, 10.1023/A:1006240928938 Elbagir, 1995, Pattern of long-term complications in Sudanese insulin-treated diabetic patients, Diabetes Res Clin Pract, 30, 59, 10.1016/0168-8227(95)01146-3 Elshafei, 2010, Prevalence and determinants of diabetic retinopathy among persons 40 years of age with diabetes in Qatar: a community-based survey, Eur J Ophthalmol, 21, 39, 10.5301/EJO.2010.2699 Emanuele, 2009, Ethnicity, race, and clinically significant macular edema in the Veterans Affairs Diabetes Trial (VADT), Diabetes Res Clin Pract, 86, 104, 10.1016/j.diabres.2009.08.001 Emanuele, 2005, Ethnicity, race, and baseline retinopathy correlates in the veterans affairs diabetes trial, Diabetes Care, 28, 1954, 10.2337/diacare.28.8.1954 Erasmus, 1989, Diabetic retinopathy in Nigerians: relation to duration of diabetes, type of treatment and degree of control, East Afr Med J, 66, 248 Esteves, 2009, Prevalence of diabetic retinopathy in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus, Rev Assoc Med Bras, 55, 268, 10.1590/S0104-42302009000300017 1994, Microvascular and acute complications in IDDM patients: the EURODIAB IDDM Complications Study, Diabetologia, 37, 278, 10.1007/BF00398055 Fairchild, 1994, Prevalence and risk factors for retinopathy in adolescents with type 1 diabetes, Med J Aust, 160, 757, 10.5694/j.1326-5377.1994.tb125943.x Falck, 1993, Prevalence and risk factors of retinopathy in children with diabetes. A population-based study on Finnish children, Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh), 71, 801, 10.1111/j.1755-3768.1993.tb08604.x Farrell, 1993, Prevalence of diabetes and its complications in the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, Diabetes Care, 16, 253, 10.2337/diacare.16.1.253 Flack, 1996, A prospective, longitudinal study examining the development of retinopathy in children with diabetes, Acta Paediatr, 85, 313, 10.1111/j.1651-2227.1996.tb14023.x Fong, 2004, Diabetic retinopathy, Diabetes Care, 27, 2540, 10.2337/diacare.27.10.2540 Foster, 2005, The impact of Vision 2020 on global blindness, Eye (Lond), 19, 1133, 10.1038/sj.eye.6701973 Frederikson, 2008, Diabetes eye screening in the Wellington region of New Zealand: characteristics of the enrolled population (2002–2005), NZ Med J, 121, 21 Gill, 2009, A sub-Saharan African perspective of diabetes, Diabetologia, 52, 8, 10.1007/s00125-008-1167-9 Giuffre, 2004, Prevalence and risk factors of diabetic retinopathy in adult and elderly subjects: The Casteldaccia Eye Study, Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol, 242, 535, 10.1007/s00417-004-0880-4 Golbahar, 2008, Clinical risk factors and association of hyperhomocysteinemia with diabetic retinopathy in Iranian type 2 diabetes patients. A cross-sectional study from Shiraz, Southern Iran, Diabetes Metab Syndr, 2, 192, 10.1016/j.dsx.2008.05.001 Gomes, 2000, Prospective study of development of microalbuminuria and retinopathy in Brazilian IDDM patients, Acta Diabetol, 37, 19, 10.1007/s005920070031 Gul, 2010, Carotid intima–media thickness and its relations with the complications in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus, Anadolu Kardiyol Derg, 10, 52, 10.5152/akd.2010.012 Haffner, 1989, Effects of socioeconomic status on hyperglycemia and retinopathy levels in Mexican Americans with NIDDM, Diabetes Care, 12, 128, 10.2337/diacare.12.2.128 Hallman, 2005, Familial aggregation of severity of diabetic retinopathy in Mexican Americans from Starr County, Texas, Diabetes Care, 28, 1163, 10.2337/diacare.28.5.1163 Hamman, 1989, Prevalence and risk factors of diabetic retinopathy in non-Hispanic whites and Hispanics with NIDDM. San Luis Valley Diabetes Study, Diabetes, 38, 1231, 10.2337/diabetes.38.10.1231 Harjo, 2011, Prevalence of diabetes and cardiovascular risk factors among California Native American adults compared to other ethnicities: The 2005 California Health Interview Survey, Metab Syndr Relat Disord, 9, 49, 10.1089/met.2010.0043 Harris, 1993, Racial differences in the relationship between blood pressure and risk of retinopathy among individuals with NIDDM, Diabetes Care, 16, 748, 10.2337/diacare.16.5.748 Harris, 1999, Black–white differences in risk of developing retinopathy among individuals with type 2 diabetes, Diabetes Care, 22, 779, 10.2337/diacare.22.5.779 Harris, 1998, Is the risk of diabetic retinopathy greater in non-Hispanic blacks and Mexican Americans than in non-Hispanic whites with type 2 diabetes? A US population study, Diabetes Care, 21, 1230, 10.2337/diacare.21.8.1230 Herman, 1998, Diabetes mellitus in Egypt: glycaemic control and microvascular and neuropathic complications, Diabet Med, 15, 1045, 10.1002/(SICI)1096-9136(1998120)15:12<1045::AID-DIA696>3.0.CO;2-L Herman, 2009, Racial and ethnic differences in mean plasma glucose, hemoglobin A1c, and 1,5-anhydroglucitol in over 2000 patients with type 2 diabetes, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 94, 1689, 10.1210/jc.2008-1940 Hietala, 2010, Age at onset and the risk of proliferative retinopathy in type 1 diabetes, Diabetes Care, 33, 1315, 10.2337/dc09-2278 Hirvela, 1997, Diabetic retinopathy in people aged 70 years or older. The Oulu Eye Study, Br J Ophthalmol, 81, 214, 10.1136/bjo.81.3.214 Hove, 2004, The prevalence of retinopathy in an unselected population of type 2 diabetes patients from Arhus County, Denmark, Acta Ophthalmol Scand, 82, 443, 10.1111/j.1600-0420.2004.00270.x Hovind, 2003, Decreasing incidence of severe diabetic microangiopathy in type 1 diabetes, Diabetes Care, 26, 1258, 10.2337/diacare.26.4.1258 Hu, 1991, Coronary heart disease and diabetic retinopathy in newly diagnosed diabetes in Da Qing, China: the Da Qing IGT and Diabetes Study, Acta Diabetol, 28, 169, 10.1007/BF00579721 Ikegami, 2008, Genetic basis of type 1 diabetes: similarities and differences between east and west, Rev Diabet Stud, 5, 64, 10.1900/RDS.2008.5.64 2009 Jamal-u-Din, 2006, Prevalence of diabetic retinopathy among individuals screened positive for diabetes in five community-based eye camps in northern Karachi, Pakistan, J Ayub Med Coll Abbottabad, 18, 40 Jandeleit-Dahm, 2006, Hypertension and diabetes: role of the renin–angiotensin system, Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am, 35, 469, 10.1016/j.ecl.2006.06.007 Jaross, 2003, Prevalence of diabetic retinopathy in an Aboriginal Australian population: results from the Katherine Region Diabetic Retinopathy Study (KRDRS). Report no. 1, Clin Experiment Ophthalmol, 31, 32, 10.1046/j.1442-9071.2003.00596.x Javadi, 2009, Prevalence of diabetic retinopathy in Tehran province: a population-based study, BMC Ophthalmol, 9, 12, 10.1186/1471-2415-9-12 Johansen, 1994, The relation between retinopathy and albumin excretion rate in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. From the Funen County Epidemiology of Type 1 Diabetes Complications Survey, Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh), 72, 347, 10.1111/j.1755-3768.1994.tb02771.x Jonas, 2009, The Beijing Eye Study, Acta Ophthalmol, 87, 247, 10.1111/j.1755-3768.2008.01385.x Joner, 1992, A nationwide cross-sectional study of retinopathy and microalbuminuria in young Norwegian type 1 (insulin-dependent) diabetic patients, Diabetologia, 35, 1049, 10.1007/BF02221680 Kahn, 1980, Revised Framingham Eye Study (mdash) prevalence of glaucoma and diabetic retinopathy, Am J Epidemiol, 111, 769, 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a112955 Kalk, 1997, Ethnic differences in the clinical and laboratory associations with retinopathy in adult onset diabetes: studies in patients of African, European and Indian origins, J Intern Med, 241, 31, 10.1046/j.1365-2796.1997.70892000.x Kalm, 1989, Non-stereo fundus photography as a screening procedure for diabetic retinopathy among patients with type II diabetes. Compared with 60D enhanced slit-lamp examination, Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh), 67, 546, 10.1111/j.1755-3768.1989.tb04106.x Kalter-Leibovici, 1997, The development and progression of diabetic retinopathy in type I diabetic patients: a cohort study, Diabet Med, 14, 858, 10.1002/(SICI)1096-9136(199710)14:10<858::AID-DIA471>3.0.CO;2-V Kempen, 2004, The prevalence of diabetic retinopathy among adults in the United States, Arch Ophthalmol, 122, 552, 10.1001/archopht.122.4.552 Kernell, 1997, Prevalence of diabetic retinopathy in children and adolescents with IDDM. A population-based multicentre study, Diabetologia, 40, 307, 10.1007/s001250050679 Khan, 2010, Prevalence and determinants of diabetic retinopathy in Al hasa region of Saudi Arabia: primary health care centre based cross-sectional survey, 2007–2009, Middle East Afr J Ophthalmol, 17, 257, 10.4103/0974-9233.65502 Khandekar, 2009, Gender inequality in vision loss and eye diseases: evidence from the Sultanate of Oman, Indian J Ophthalmol, 57, 443, 10.4103/0301-4738.57153 Kim, 1998, Development and progression of diabetic retinopathy in Koreans with NIDDM, Diabetes Care, 21, 134, 10.2337/diacare.21.1.134 Klein, 1985, The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. A comparison of retinopathy in younger and older onset diabetic persons, Adv Exp Med Biol, 189, 321, 10.1007/978-1-4757-1850-8_18 Klein, 2010, Are individuals with diabetes seeing better? A long-term epidemiological perspective, Diabetes, 59, 1853, 10.2337/db09-1904 Klein, 1985, A population-based study of diabetic retinopathy in insulin-using patients diagnosed before 30 years of age, Diabetes Care, 1, 71, 10.2337/diacare.8.1.S71 Klein, 1990, The Wisconsin epidemiologic study of diabetic retinopathy: an update, Aust NZ J Ophthalmol, 18, 19, 10.1111/j.1442-9071.1990.tb00579.x Klein, 1994, The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of diabetic retinopathy. XIV. Ten-year incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy, Arch Ophthalmol, 112, 1217, 10.1001/archopht.1994.01090210105023 Klein, 1995, The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. XV. The long-term incidence of macular edema, Ophthalmology, 102, 7, 10.1016/S0161-6420(95)31052-4 Klein, 1984, The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy IV. Diabetic macular edema, Ophthalmology, 91, 1464, 10.1016/S0161-6420(84)34102-1 Klein, 1984, The Wisconsin epidemiologic study of diabetic retinopathy. II. Prevalence and risk of diabetic retinopathy when age at diagnosis is less than 30 years, Arch Ophthalmol, 102, 520, 10.1001/archopht.1984.01040030398010 Klein, 1984, The Wisconsin epidemiologic study of diabetic retinopathy. III. Prevalence and risk of diabetic retinopathy when age at diagnosis is 30 or more years, Arch Ophthalmol, 102, 527, 10.1001/archopht.1984.01040030405011 Klein, 1985, Retinopathy in young-onset diabetic patients, Diabetes Care, 8, 311, 10.2337/diacare.8.4.311 Klein, 1989, The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. IX. Four-year incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy when age at diagnosis is less than 30 years, Arch Ophthalmol, 107, 237, 10.1001/archopht.1989.01070010243030 Klein, 1989, The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. X. Four-year incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy when age at diagnosis is 30 years or more, Arch Ophthalmol, 107, 244, 10.1001/archopht.1989.01070010250031 Klein, 1992, The Beaver Dam Eye Study. Retinopathy in adults with newly discovered and previously diagnosed diabetes mellitus, Ophthalmology, 99, 58, 10.1016/S0161-6420(92)32011-1 Klein, 2004, The relation of retinal vessel caliber to the incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy: XIX: the Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy, Arch Ophthalmol, 122, 76, 10.1001/archopht.122.1.76 Klein, 1998, The Wisconsin Epidemiological Study of Diabetic Retinopathy: XVII. The 14-year incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy and associated risk factors in type I diabetes, Ophthalmology, 105, 1801, 10.1016/S0161-6420(98)91020-X Klein, 2008, The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy: XXII the twenty-five-year progression of retinopathy in persons with type 1 diabetes, Ophthalmology, 115, 1859, 10.1016/j.ophtha.2008.08.023 Klein, 2009, The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy XXIII: the twenty-five-year incidence of macular edema in persons with type 1 diabetes, Ophthalmology, 116, 497, 10.1016/j.ophtha.2008.10.016 Klein, 2002, The relation of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease to retinopathy in people with diabetes in the Cardiovascular Health Study, Br J Ophthalmol, 86, 84, 10.1136/bjo.86.1.84 Klein, 1989, The Wisconsin epidemiologic study of diabetic retinopathy. XI. The incidence of macular edema, Ophthalmology, 96, 1501, 10.1016/S0161-6420(89)32699-6 Klein, 2002, The association of atherosclerosis, vascular risk factors, and retinopathy in adults with diabetes: the atherosclerosis risk in communities study, Ophthalmology, 109, 1225, 10.1016/S0161-6420(02)01074-6 Knudsen, 2006, The North Jutland County Diabetic Retinopathy Study: population characteristics, Br J Ophthalmol, 90, 1404, 10.1136/bjo.2006.093393 Ko, 1999, Diabetic microangiopathic complications in young Chinese diabetic patients: a clinic-based cross-sectional study, J Diabetes Complicat, 13, 300, 10.1016/S1056-8727(99)00063-X Kohner, 1998, United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study, 30: diabetic retinopathy at diagnosis of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and associated risk factors, Arch Ophthalmol, 116, 297, 10.1001/archopht.116.3.297 Kokkonen, 1994, Ocular complications in young adults with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus since childhood, Acta Paediatr, 83, 273, 10.1111/j.1651-2227.1994.tb18093.x Kola, 2009, How to treat hypertension in blacks: review of the evidence, Acta Clin Belg, 64, 466, 10.1179/acb.2009.082 Kristinsson, 1994, Screening for eye disease in type 2 diabetes mellitus, Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh), 72, 341, 10.1111/j.1755-3768.1994.tb02770.x Kristinsson, 1994, Systematic screening for diabetic eye disease in insulin dependent diabetes, Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh), 72, 72, 10.1111/j.1755-3768.1994.tb02741.x Kuiv, 1997, Photographic detection of retinopathy in insulin-treated diabetes. A population study in the city of Tartu, Estonia, Acta Ophthalmol Scand, 75, 447, 10.1111/j.1600-0420.1997.tb00412.x Lanting, 2008, Ethnic differences in internal medicine referrals and diagnosis in the Netherlands, BMC Public Health, 8, 287, 10.1186/1471-2458-8-287 Larsson, 1999, Retinopathy in diabetic patients aged 15–50 years in the county of Umea, Sweden, Acta Ophthalmol Scand, 77, 430, 10.1034/j.1600-0420.1999.770415.x Lee, 1992, Diabetic retinopathy in Oklahoma Indians with NIDDM. Incidence and risk factors, Diabetes Care, 15, 1620, 10.2337/diacare.15.11.1620 Lee, 2001, Vascular disease in younger-onset diabetes: comparison of European, Asian and American Indian cohorts of the WHO Multinational Study of Vascular Disease in Diabetes, Diabetologia, 44, S78, 10.1007/PL00002943 Leese, 1993, Use of mobile screening unit for diabetic retinopathy in rural and urban areas, BMJ, 306, 187, 10.1136/bmj.306.6871.187 Leske, 2003, Incidence of diabetic retinopathy in the Barbados Eye Studies, Ophthalmology, 110, 941, 10.1016/S0161-6420(03)00086-1 Leske, 2006, Nine-year incidence of diabetic retinopathy in the Barbados Eye Studies, Arch Ophthalmol, 124, 250, 10.1001/archopht.124.2.250 Leske, 1999, Diabetic retinopathy in a black population: the Barbados Eye Study, Ophthalmology, 106, 1893, 10.1016/S0161-6420(99)90398-6 Lim, 2008, Prevalence and risk factors of diabetic retinopathy in a multi-racial underserved population, Ophthalmic Epidemiol, 15, 402, 10.1080/09286580802435179 Lim, 2008, Low prevalence of retinopathy, but high prevalence of nephropathy among Maori with newly diagnosed diabetes—Te Wai o Rona: Diabetes Prevention Strategy, Diabetes Res Clin Pract, 80, 271, 10.1016/j.diabres.2007.12.018 Lind, 2010, The shape of the metabolic memory of HbA1c: re-analysing the DCCT with respect to time-dependent effects, Diabetologia, 53, 1093, 10.1007/s00125-010-1706-z Ling, 2002, Longitudinal study of a cohort of people with diabetes screened by the Exeter Diabetic Retinopathy Screening Programme, Eye (Lond), 16, 140, 10.1038/sj/eye/6700081 Liu, 2002, Retinopathy in a Chinese population with type 2 diabetes: factors affecting the presence of this complication at diagnosis of diabetes, Diabetes Res Clin Pract, 56, 125, 10.1016/S0168-8227(01)00349-7 Looker, 2007, Genome-wide linkage analyses to identify Loci for diabetic retinopathy, Diabetes, 56, 1160, 10.2337/db06-1299 Maberley, 2002, Risk factors for diabetic retinopathy in the Cree of James Bay, Ophthalmic Epidemiol, 9, 153, 10.1076/opep.9.3.153.1515 Maguire, 2005, The case for biennial retinopathy screening in children and adolescents, Diabetes Care, 28, 509, 10.2337/diacare.28.3.509 Mahal, 2009, Comparison of the retinal microvasculature in European and African Caribbean people with diabetes, Clin Sci (Lond), 117, 229, 10.1042/CS20080538 Majaliwa, 2007, Survey on acute and chronic complications in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes at Muhimbili National Hospital in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, Diabetes Care, 30, 2187, 10.2337/dc07-0594 Manaviat, 2004, Retinopathy and microalbuminuria in type II diabetic patients, BMC Ophthalmol, 4, 9, 10.1186/1471-2415-4-9 Manaviat, 2008, Prevalence of dry eye syndrome and diabetic retinopathy in type 2 diabetic patients, BMC Ophthalmol, 8, 10, 10.1186/1471-2415-8-10 Maple-Brown, 2008, Complications of diabetes in urban Indigenous Australians: the DRUID study, Diabetes Res Clin Pract, 80, 455, 10.1016/j.diabres.2008.01.011 Massin, 2007, Prevalence of diabetic retinopathy in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes attending summer camps in France, Diabetes Metab, 33, 284, 10.1016/j.diabet.2007.03.004 Mayer-Davis, 2009, The many faces of diabetes in American youth: type 1 and type 2 diabetes in five race and ethnic populations: the SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth Study, Diabetes Care, 32, S99, 10.2337/dc09-S201 McCance, 1989, Long-term glycaemic control and diabetic retinopathy, Lancet, 2, 824, 10.1016/S0140-6736(89)92996-6 McCarty, 2001, Diabetic retinopathy: effects of national guidelines on the referral, examination and treatment practices of ophthalmologists and optometrists, Clin Exp Ophthalmol, 29, 52, 10.1046/j.1442-9071.2001.d01-3.x Mendes, 2010, Prevalence and correlates of inadequate glycaemic control: results from a nationwide survey in 6,671 adults with diabetes in Brazil, Acta Diabetol, 47, 137, 10.1007/s00592-009-0138-z Miljanovic, 2004, A prospective study of serum lipids and risk of diabetic macular edema in type 1 diabetes, Diabetes, 53, 2883, 10.2337/diabetes.53.11.2883 Mitchell, 1985, Development and progression of diabetic eye disease in Newcastle (1977–1984): rates and risk factors, Aust NZ J Ophthalmol, 13, 39, 10.1111/j.1442-9071.1985.tb00397.x Mitchell, 1998, Prevalence of diabetic retinopathy in an older community. The Blue Mountains Eye Study, Ophthalmology, 105, 406, 10.1016/S0161-6420(98)93019-6 Mohan, 2000, Frequency of proteinuria in type 2 diabetes mellitus seen at a diabetes centre in southern India, Postgrad Med J, 76, 569, 10.1136/pmj.76.899.569 Mohsin, 2005, Discordant trends in microvascular complications in adolescents with type 1 diabetes from 1990 to 2002, Diabetes Care, 28, 1974, 10.2337/diacare.28.8.1974 Moore, 2000, Diabetes in New Zealand, Diabetes Res Clin Pract, 50, S65, 10.1016/S0168-8227(00)00181-9 Morales, 2009, A better future for children with type 1 diabetes: review of the conclusions from the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial and the Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions and Complications study, J Ark Med Soc, 106, 90 Moreira, 2010, Glycemic control and its correlates in patients with diabetes in Venezuela: results from a nationwide survey, Diabetes Res Clin Pract, 87, 407, 10.1016/j.diabres.2009.12.014 Morisaki, 1994, Diabetic control and progression of retinopathy in elderly patients: five-year follow-up study, J Am Geriatr Soc, 42, 142, 10.1111/j.1532-5415.1994.tb04941.x Motala, 2001, Microvascular complications in South African patients with long-duration diabetes mellitus, S Afr Med J, 91, 987 Moussa, 2005, Prevalence of type 1 diabetes among 6- to 18-year-old Kuwaiti children, Med Princ Pract, 14, 87, 10.1159/000083917 Muller, 2007, Changes in eye care utilization following an eye health promotion campaign, Clin Experiment Ophthalmol, 35, 305, 10.1111/j.1442-9071.2007.01450.x Munoz, 2000, Causes of blindness and visual impairment in a population of older Americans: The Salisbury Eye Evaluation Study, Arch Ophthalmol, 118, 819, 10.1001/archopht.118.6.819 Nagi, 1997, Diabetic retinopathy assessed by fundus photography in Pima Indians with impaired glucose tolerance and NIDDM, Diabet Med, 14, 449, 10.1002/(SICI)1096-9136(199706)14:6<449::AID-DIA367>3.0.CO;2-D Namperumalsamy, 2009, Prevalence and risk factors for diabetic retinopathy: a population-based assessment from Theni District, south India, Br J Ophthalmol, 93, 429 Naqshbandi, 2008, Global complication rates of type 2 diabetes in Indigenous peoples: a comprehensive review, Diabetes Res Clin Pract, 82, 1, 10.1016/j.diabres.2008.07.017 Narendran, 2002, Diabetic retinopathy among self reported diabetics in southern India: a population based assessment, Br J Ophthalmol, 86, 1014, 10.1136/bjo.86.9.1014 Nayak, 2005, Relationship between sialic acid and metabolic variables in Indian type 2 diabetic patients, Lipids Health Dis, 4, 15, 10.1186/1476-511X-4-15 Nguyen, 2008, Relationship of retinal vascular caliber with diabetes and retinopathy: the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA), Diabetes Care, 31, 544, 10.2337/dc07-1528 Nitiyanant, 2002, The Diabcare-Asia 1998 study––outcomes on control and complications in type 1 and type 2 diabetic patients, Curr Med Res Opin, 18, 317, 10.1185/030079902125000822 Nordwall, 2006, Early diabetic complications in a population of young patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus despite intensive treatment, J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab, 19, 45, 10.1515/JPEM.2006.19.1.45 Ogawa, 2009, Progression factors of carotid intima–media thickness and plaque in patients with long-term, early-onset type 1 diabetes mellitus in Japan: simultaneous comparison with diabetic retinopathy, J Atheroscler Thromb, 16, 821, 10.5551/jat.1701 Olivarius, 2001, Randomised controlled trial of structured personal care of type 2 diabetes mellitus, BMJ, 323, 970, 10.1136/bmj.323.7319.970 Olsen, 1999, Metabolic control and prevalence of microvascular complications in young Danish patients with Type 1 diabetes mellitus. Danish Study Group of Diabetes in Childhood, Diabet Med, 16, 79, 10.1046/j.1464-5491.1999.00024.x Orr, 1999, Eye care utilization by older Americans: the SEE Project. Salisbury Eye Evaluation, Ophthalmology, 106, 904, 10.1016/S0161-6420(99)00508-4 Oster, 2009, Differences in the prevalence of diabetes risk-factors among First Nation, Metis and non-Aboriginal adults attending screening clinics in rural Alberta, Canada, Rural Remote Health, 9, 1170 Oster, 2009, Diabetes care and health status of First Nations individuals with type 2 diabetes in Alberta, Can Fam Physician, 55, 386 Pambianco, 2007, Diabetes Care, 30, 1248, 10.2337/dc06-2053 Paudyal, 2008, Prevalence of diabetic retinopathy following a community screening for diabetes, Nepal Med Coll J, 10, 160 Pedro, 2010, Prevalence and relationship between diabetic retinopathy and nephropathy, and its risk factors in the North-East of Spain, a population-based study, Ophthalmic Epidemiol, 17, 251, 10.3109/09286586.2010.498661 Perez-Escamilla, 2007, The role of acculturation in nutrition, lifestyle, and incidence of type 2 diabetes among Latinos, J Nutr, 137, 860, 10.1093/jn/137.4.860 Pinto-Figueiredo, 1992, Diabetic retinopathy in a population of 1,302 insulin dependent diabetics (IDDM) diagnosed before 30 years of age, Int Ophthalmol, 16, 429, 10.1007/BF00918433 Povlsen, 2005, Diabetes in children and adolescents from ethnic minorities: barriers to education, treatment and good metabolic control, J Adv Nurs, 50, 576, 10.1111/j.1365-2648.2005.03443.x Povlsen, 2005, Educating families from ethnic minorities in type 1 diabetes—experiences from a Danish intervention study, Patient Educ Couns, 59, 164, 10.1016/j.pec.2004.10.014 Pradeepa, 2008, Risk factors for diabetic retinopathy in a South Indian Type 2 diabetic population—the Chennai Urban Rural Epidemiology Study (CURES) Eye Study 4, Diabet Med, 25, 536, 10.1111/j.1464-5491.2008.02423.x Premanand, 2006, Effect of curcumin on proliferation of human retinal endothelial cells under in vitro conditions, Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 47, 2179, 10.1167/iovs.05-0580 Radha, 2002, Genes and diabetic retinopathy, Indian J Ophthalmol, 50, 5 Rajala, 1998, Prevalence of retinopathy in people with diabetes, impaired glucose tolerance, and normal glucose tolerance, Diabetes Care, 21, 1664, 10.2337/diacare.21.10.1664 Ramachandran, 2000, Vascular complications in young Asian Indian patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus, Diabetes Res Clin Pract, 48, 51, 10.1016/S0168-8227(99)00134-5 Ramachandran, 1999, Prevalence of vascular complications and their risk factors in type 2 diabetes, J Assoc Physicians India, 47, 1152 Ramachandran, 2002, Impact of poverty on the prevalence of diabetes and its complications in urban southern India, Diabet Med, 19, 130, 10.1046/j.1464-5491.2002.00656.x Raman, 2010, Association of obesity with diabetic retinopathy: Sankara Nethralaya Diabetic Retinopathy Epidemiology and Molecular Genetics Study (SN-DREAMS Report no. 8), Acta Diabetol, 47, 209, 10.1007/s00592-009-0113-8 Raman, 2010, Influence of serum lipids on clinically significant versus nonclinically significant macular edema: SN-DREAMS Report number 13, Ophthalmology, 117, 766, 10.1016/j.ophtha.2009.09.005 Raman, 2009, Prevalence of diabetic retinopathy in India: Sankara Nethralaya Diabetic Retinopathy Epidemiology and Molecular Genetics Study report 2, Ophthalmology, 116, 311, 10.1016/j.ophtha.2008.09.010 Raman, 2011, Is prevalence of retinopathy related to the age of onset of diabetes? Sankara Nethralaya Diabetic Retinopathy Epidemiology and Molecular Genetic Report No. 5, Ophthalmic Res, 45, 36, 10.1159/000314720 Rani, 2009, Risk factors for diabetic retinopathy in self-reported rural population with diabetes, J Postgrad Med, 55, 92, 10.4103/0022-3859.48787 Rani, 2007, Analysis of a comprehensive diabetic retinopathy screening model for rural and urban diabetics in developing countries, Br J Ophthalmol, 91, 1425, 10.1136/bjo.2007.120659 Ranil, 2010, Anemia and diabetic retinopathy in type 2 diabetes mellitus, J Assoc Physicians India, 58, 91 Raymond, 2009, Higher prevalence of retinopathy in diabetic patients of South Asian ethnicity compared with white Europeans in the community: a cross-sectional study, Diabetes Care, 32, 410, 10.2337/dc08-1422 Rema, 2000, Prevalence of retinopathy at diagnosis among type 2 diabetic patients attending a diabetic centre in South India, Br J Ophthalmol, 84, 1058, 10.1136/bjo.84.9.1058 Rema, 2002, Retinopathy at diagnosis among young Asian diabetic patients: the ASDIAB Study Group, Diabetes, 51, A206 Rema, 1996, Prevalence of retinopathy in non insulin dependent diabetes mellitus at a diabetes centre in southern India, Diabetes Res Clin Pract, 34, 29, 10.1016/S0168-8227(96)01327-7 Rema, 2005, Prevalence of diabetic retinopathy in urban India: the Chennai Urban Rural Epidemiology Study (CURES) eye study, I, Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 46, 2328, 10.1167/iovs.05-0019 Rema, 2002, Familial clustering of diabetic retinopathy in South Indian Type 2 diabetic patients, Diabet Med, 19, 910, 10.1046/j.1464-5491.2002.00820.x Rema, 2006, Association of serum lipids with diabetic retinopathy in urban South Indians—the Chennai Urban Rural Epidemiology Study (CURES) Eye Study—2, Diabet Med, 23, 1029, 10.1111/j.1464-5491.2006.01890.x Riste, 2001, High prevalence of type 2 diabetes in all ethnic groups, including Europeans, in a British inner city: relative poverty, history, inactivity, or 21st century Europe?, Diabetes Care, 24, 1377, 10.2337/diacare.24.8.1377 Rodrigues, 2010, Masked hypertension, nocturnal blood pressure and retinopathy in normotensive patients with type 1 diabetes, Diabetes Res Clin Pract, 87, 240, 10.1016/j.diabres.2009.10.016 Rogers, 2008, Retinal arteriolar caliber predicts incident retinopathy: the Australian Diabetes, Obesity and Lifestyle (AusDiab) study, Diabetes Care, 31, 761, 10.2337/dc07-1622 Ross, 2007, Diabetic retinopathy in native and nonnative Canadians, Exp Diabetes Res, 2007, 1, 10.1155/2007/76271 Rotimi, 2003, Prevalence and determinants of diabetic retinopathy and cataracts in West African type 2 diabetes patients, Ethn Dis, 13, S110 Roy, 2000, Diabetic retinopathy in African Americans with type 1 diabetes: The New Jersey 725: I. Methodology, population, frequency of retinopathy, and visual impairment, Arch Ophthalmol, 118, 97, 10.1001/archopht.118.1.97 Roy, 2010, High caloric and sodium intakes as risk factors for progression of retinopathy in type 1 diabetes mellitus, Arch Ophthalmol, 128, 33, 10.1001/archophthalmol.2009.358 Saadi, 2007, Prevalence of diabetes mellitus and its complications in a population-based sample in Al Ain, United Arab Emirates, Diabetes Res Clin Pract, 78, 369, 10.1016/j.diabres.2007.04.008 Salti, 2009, Prevalence and determinants of retinopathy in a cohort of Lebanese type II diabetic patients, Can J Ophthalmol, 44, 308, 10.3129/i09-029 Sano, 2009, Blindness and laser photocoagulation in patients with childhood-onset type 1 diabetes in Japan, Br J Ophthalmol, 93, 726, 10.1136/bjo.2008.149534 Scanlon, 2008, The English national screening programme for sight-threatening diabetic retinopathy, J Med Screen, 15, 1, 10.1258/jms.2008.008015 Schrier, 2007, Appropriate blood pressure control in hypertensive and normotensive type 2 diabetes mellitus: a summary of the ABCD trial, Nat Clin Pract Nephrol, 3, 428, 10.1038/ncpneph0559 Schulz, 1997, Prevalence of diabetes and factors associated with diabetic complications in Oneida Indians, Life Sci, 60, 299, 10.1016/S0024-3205(96)00630-3 Scott, 2004, Diabetes in children and young adults in Waikato Province, New Zealand: outcomes of care, NZ Med J, 117, U1219 Sehnaz Karadeniz, 2007, Duration of diabetes and prevalence of diabetic retinopathy: Istanbul Diabetic Retinopathy Study—IDRS results 1 retinopathy, Diabetes Metab Syndr, 1, 43, 10.1016/j.dsx.2006.11.008 Sharp, 1964, Diabetes survey in Bedford, Proc R Soc Med, 57, 193 Shera, 2007, Prevalence of diabetes in Pakistan, Diabetes Res Clin Pract, 76, 219, 10.1016/j.diabres.2006.08.011 Simmons, 1989, Prevalence of diabetes in a predominantly Asian community: preliminary findings of the Coventry diabetes study, BMJ, 298, 18, 10.1136/bmj.298.6665.18 Simmons, 1991, The Coventry Diabetes Study: prevalence of diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance in Europids and Asians, Q J Med, 81, 1021, 10.1093/qjmed/81.3.1021 Sjolie, 1985, Ocular complications in insulin treated diabetes mellitus. An epidemiological study, Acta Ophthalmol, 172, 1 Sloan, 2008, Changes in incidence of diabetes mellitus–related eye disease among US elderly persons, 1994–2005, Arch Ophthalmol, 126, 1548, 10.1001/archopht.126.11.1548 Sloan, 2004, Monitoring visual status: why patients do or do not comply with practice guidelines, Health Serv Res, 39, 1429, 10.1111/j.1475-6773.2004.00297.x Smith, 2007, The prevalence and severity of diabetic retinopathy, associated risk factors and vision loss in patients registered with type 2 diabetes in Luganville, Vanuatu, Br J Ophthalmol, 91, 415, 10.1136/bjo.2006.104174 Soljak, 2007, Ethnic inequalities in the treatment and outcome of diabetes in three English Primary Care Trusts, Int J Equity Health, 6, 8, 10.1186/1475-9276-6-8 Sparrow, 1993, The prevalence of diabetic retinopathy and maculopathy and their risk factors in the non-insulin-treated diabetic patients of an English town, Eye, 7, 158, 10.1038/eye.1993.34 Spijkerman, 2003, Microvascular complications at time of diagnosis of type 2 diabetes are similar among diabetic patients detected by targeted screening and patients newly diagnosed in general practice: the hoorn screening study, Diabetes Care, 26, 2604, 10.2337/diacare.26.9.2604 Stephenson, 1995, Blood pressure, retinopathy and urinary albumin excretion in IDDM: the EURODIAB IDDM Complications Study, Diabetologia, 38, 599, 10.1007/BF00400730 Stolk, 2008, Retinal vascular lesions in patients of Caucasian and Asian origin with type 2 diabetes: baseline results from the ADVANCE Retinal Measurements (AdRem) study, Diabetes Care, 31, 708, 10.2337/dc07-1657 Stolk, 1995, Retinopathy, glucose, and insulin in an elderly population. The Rotterdam Study, Diabetes, 44, 11, 10.2337/diabetes.44.1.11 Strain, 2005, Ethnic differences in skin microvascular function and their relation to cardiac target-organ damage, J Hypertens, 23, 133, 10.1097/00004872-200501000-00023 Svensson, 2009, Improved metabolic outcome in a Danish diabetic paediatric population aged 0–18 yr: results from a nationwide continuous Registration, Pediatr Diabetes, 10, 461, 10.1111/j.1399-5448.2008.00460.x Takeuchi, 2008, Ethnic difference in inter-East Asian subjects with normal glucose tolerance and impaired glucose regulation: a systematic review and meta–analysis focusing on fasting serum insulin, Diabetes Res Clin Pract, 82, 383, 10.1016/j.diabres.2008.09.002 Tam, 2005, Epidemiological study of diabetic retinopathy in a primary care setting in Hong Kong, Hong Kong Med J, 11, 438 Tam, 2009, Incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy in Hong Kong Chinese with type 2 diabetes mellitus, J Diabetes Complicat, 23, 185, 10.1016/j.jdiacomp.2008.03.001 Tapp, 2003, The prevalence of and factors associated with diabetic retinopathy in the Australian population, Diabetes Care, 26, 1731, 10.2337/diacare.26.6.1731 1993, The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, N Engl J Med, 329, 977, 10.1056/NEJM199309303291401 2000, Effect of pregnancy on microvascular complications in the diabetes control and complications trial, Diabetes Care, 23, 1084, 10.2337/diacare.23.8.1084 2002, Effect of intensive therapy on the microvascular complications of type 1 diabetes mellitus, JAMA, 287, 2563, 10.1001/jama.287.19.2563 Tudor, 1998, Incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy in Hispanics and non–Hispanic whites with type 2 diabetes. San Luis Valley Diabetes Study, Colorado, Diabetes Care, 21, 53, 10.2337/diacare.21.1.53 1994, UK Prospective Diabetes Study. XII: Differences between Asian, Afro-Caribbean and white Caucasian type 2 diabetic patients at diagnosis of diabetes, Diabet Med, 11, 670, 10.1111/j.1464-5491.1994.tb00331.x 1998, Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33), Lancet, 352, 837, 10.1016/S0140-6736(98)07019-6 1998, Tight blood pressure control and risk of macrovascular and microvascular complications in type 2 diabetes: UKPDS 38, BMJ, 317, 703, 10.1136/bmj.317.7160.703 Uthra, 2010, Diabetic retinopathy: Validation study of ALR2, RAGE, iNOS and TNFB gene variants in a south Indian cohort, Ophthalmic Genet, 31, 244, 10.3109/13816810.2010.523037 van, 2010, The global burden of diabetes and its complications: an emerging pandemic, Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil, 17, S3 Varma, 2010, Four-year incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy and macular edema: the Los Angeles Latino Eye Study, Am J Ophthalmol, 149, 752, 10.1016/j.ajo.2009.11.014 Varma, 2010, Four-year incidence and progression of visual impairment in Latinos: the Los Angeles Latino Eye Study, Am J Ophthalmol, 149, 713, 10.1016/j.ajo.2009.12.011 Varma, 2004, Prevalence of diabetic retinopathy in adult Latinos: the Los Angeles Latino eye study, Ophthalmology, 111, 1298, 10.1016/j.ophtha.2004.03.002 Wahab, 2008, Frequency of retinopathy in newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes patients, J Pak Med Assoc, 58, 557 Walsh, 2006, A multinational assessment of complications in type 1 diabetes: the DiaMond substudy of complications (DiaComp) level 1, Diab Vasc Dis Res, 3, 84, 10.3132/dvdr.2006.018 Wang, 2009, Prevalence of diabetic retinopathy in rural China: the Handan Eye Study, Ophthalmology, 116, 461, 10.1016/j.ophtha.2008.10.003 Wang, 1998, Changing prevalence of retinopathy in newly diagnosed non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus patients in Hong Kong, Diabetes Res Clin Pract, 39, 185, 10.1016/S0168-8227(98)00002-3 Weerasuriya, 1998, Long-term complications in newly diagnosed Sri Lankan patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus, QJM, 91, 439, 10.1093/qjmed/91.6.439 West, 1982, Interrelationships of microangiopathy, plasma glucose and other risk factors in 3583 diabetic patients: a multinational study, Diabetologia, 22, 412, 10.1007/BF00282582 West, 2001, Diabetes and diabetic retinopathy in a Mexican American population: Proyecto VER, Diabetes Care, 24, 1204, 10.2337/diacare.24.7.1204 White, 2010, Effect of prior intensive therapy in type 1 diabetes on 10-year progression of retinopathy in the DCCT/EDIC: comparison of adults and adolescents, Diabetes, 59, 1244, 10.2337/db09-1216 1999, WHO launches Vision 2020 to combat avoidable blindness, Public Health Rep, 114, 210, 10.1093/phr/114.3.210 Wild, 2004, Global prevalence of diabetes: estimates for the year 2000 and projections for 2030, Diabetes Care, 27, 1047, 10.2337/diacare.27.5.1047 Williams, 2004, Epidemiology of diabetic retinopathy and macular oedema: a systematic review, Eye (Lond), 18, 963, 10.1038/sj.eye.6701476 Wilson, 2005, Ophthalmologic disorders in minority populations, Med Clin North Am, 89, 795, 10.1016/j.mcna.2005.02.002 Wong, 2006, Prevalence of type 2 diabetes mellitus of Chinese populations in Mainland China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan, Diabetes Res Clin Pract, 73, 126, 10.1016/j.diabres.2006.01.007 Wong, 2008, Prevalence and risk factors for diabetic retinopathy: the Singapore Malay Eye Study, Ophthalmology, 115, 1869, 10.1016/j.ophtha.2008.05.014 Wong, 2006, Diabetic retinopathy in a multi-ethnic cohort in the United States, Am J Ophthalmol, 141, 446, 10.1016/j.ajo.2005.08.063 Wulan, 2010, Ethnic differences in body composition and the associated metabolic profile: a comparative study between Asians and Caucasians, Maturitas, 65, 315, 10.1016/j.maturitas.2009.12.012 Xie, 2009, Prevalence of diabetic retinopathy among subjects with known diabetes in China: the Beijing Eye Study, Eur J Ophthalmol, 19, 91, 10.1177/112067210901900114 Yang, 2010, An association between subclinical hypothyroidism and sight–threatening diabetic retinopathy in type 2 diabetic patients, Diabetes Care, 33, 1018, 10.2337/dc09-1784 Younis, 2003, Incidence of sight-threatening retinopathy in patients with type 2 diabetes in the Liverpool Diabetic Eye Study: a cohort study, Lancet, 361, 195, 10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12267-2 Zhang, 2008, Increasing incidence of type 1 diabetes in children aged 0–14 years in Harbin, China (1990–2000), Prim Care Diabetes, 2, 121, 10.1016/j.pcd.2008.06.001 Zhang, 2008, Diabetes mellitus and visual impairment: national health and nutrition examination survey, 1999–2004, Arch Ophthalmol, 126, 1421, 10.1001/archopht.126.10.1421 Zhang, 2010, Prevalence of diabetic retinopathy in the United States, 2005–2008, JAMA, 304, 649, 10.1001/jama.2010.1111 Zimmet, 1984, The high prevalence of diabetes mellitus, impaired glucose tolerance and diabetic retinopathy in Nauru—the 1982 survey, Diabetes Res, 1, 13 National Screening Committee. Annual report 2010. Available at www.retinalscreening.nhs.uk. Accession date 8 February 2012 World Health Organisation. Prevention of blindness from diabetes mellitus: report of a WHO consultation in Geneva, Switzerland. 2005