Clues to the functions of mammalian sleep

Dinges, D. F., Rogers, N. L. & Baynard, M. D. in Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine Vol. 4 (eds Kryger, M. H., Roth, T. & Dement, W. C.) 67–76 (Elsevier Saunders, Philadelphia, 2005).

Huber, R. et al. Sleep homeostasis in Drosophila melanogaster. Sleep 27, 628–639 (2004).

Czeisler, C. A., Buxton, O. & Khalsa, S. B. S. in Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine Vol. 4 (eds Kryger, M. H., Roth, T. & Dement, W. C.) 375–394 (Elsevier Saunders, Philadelphia, 2005).

Bell-Pedersen, D. et al. Circadian rhythms from multiple oscillators: lessons from diverse organisms. Nature Rev. Genet. 6, 554–556 (2005).

Everson, C. A., Smith, C. B. & Sokoloff, L. Effects of prolonged sleep deprivation on local rates of cerebral energy metabolism in freely moving rats. J. Neurosci. 14, 6769–6778 (1994).

Nofzinger, E. A. et al. Functional neuroimaging evidence for hyperarousal in insomnia. Am. J. Psychiatry 161, 2126–2128 (2004).

Maquet, P. et al. Regional organisation of brain activity during paradoxical sleep (PS). Arch. Ital. Biol. 142, 413–419 (2004).

Rechtschaffen, A. Current perspectives on the function of sleep. Perspect. Biol. Med. 41, 359–390 (1998).

Cirelli, C. et al. Reduced sleep in Drosophila Shaker mutants. Nature 434, 1087–1092 (2005).

Kume, K., Kume, S., Park, S. K., Hirsh, J. & Jackson, F. R. Dopamine is a regulator of arousal in the fruit fly. J. Neurosci. 25, 7377–7384 (2005).

Kryger, M. H., Roth, T. & Dement, W. C. Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine (Elsevier Saunders, Philadelphia, 2005).

McGinty, D. J. & Szymusiak, R. S. in Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine Vol. 4 (eds Kryger, M. H., Roth, T. & Dement, W .C.) 169–184 (Elsevier Saunders, Philadelphia, 2005).

Saper, C. B., Chou, T. C. & Scammell, T. E. The sleep switch: hypothalamic control of sleep and wakefulness. Trends Neurosci. 24, 726–731 (2001).

Siegel, J. M. in Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine Vol. 4 (eds Kryger, M. H., Roth, T. & Dement, W. C.) 120–135 (Elsevier Saunders, Philadelphia, 2005).

Heller, H. C. in Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine Vol. 4 (eds Kryger, M. H., Roth, T. & Dement, W. C.) 292–304 (Elsevier Saunders, Philadelphia, 2005).

Coleman, C. G., Lydic, R. & Baghdoyan, H. A. M2 muscarinic receptors in pontine reticular formation of C57BL/6J mouse contribute to rapid eye movement sleep generation. Neuroscience 126, 821–830 (2004).

Jouvet, M., Buda, C., Debilly, G., Dittmar, A. & Sastre, J. P. Glycine immunoreactive neurons in the medulla oblongata in cat. C. R. Acad. Sci. III 306, 69–73 (1988).

Steriade, M. in Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine Vol. 4 (eds Kryger, M. H., Roth, T. & Dement, W. C.) 101–119 (Elsevier Saunders, Philadelphia, 2005).

Chase, M. H. & Morales, F. R. in Principles of Sleep Medicine Vol. 4 (eds Kryger, M.H., Roth, T. & Dement, W. C.) 154–168 (Elsevier Saunders, Philadelphia, 2005).

Aston-Jones, G. & Bloom, F. E. Activity of norepinephrine-containing locus coeruleus neurons in behaving rats anticipates fluctuations in the sleep-waking cycle. J.Neurosci. 1, 876–886 (1981).

Jacobs, B. L. & Azmitia, E. C. Structure and function of the brain serotonin system. Physiol. Rev. 72, 165–229 (1992).

McGinty, D. J. & Harper, R. M. Dorsal raphe neurons: depression of firing during sleep in cats. Brain Res. 101, 569–575 (1976).

Mileykovskiy, B. Y., Kiyashchenko, L. I. & Siegel, J. M. Behavioral correlates of activity in identified hypocretin/orexin neurons. Neuron 46, 787–798 (2005).

John, J., Wu, M.-F., Boehmer, L. N. & Siegel, J. M. Cataplexy-active neurons in the hypothalamus: implications for the role of histamine in sleep and waking behavior. Neuron 42, 619–634 (2004).

Zepelin, H., Siegel, J. M. & Tobler, I. in Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine Vol. 4 (eds Kryger, M. H., Roth, T. & Dement, W. C.) 91–100 (Elsevier Saunders, Philadelphia, 2005).

Grutzner, F. et al. In the platypus a meiotic chain of ten sex chromosomes shares genes with the bird Z and mammal X chromosomes. Nature 432, 913–917 (2004).

Allison, T. & Van Twyver, H. Electrophysiological studies of the echidna, Tachyglossus aculeatus. II. Dormancy and hibernation. Arch. Ital. Biol. 110, 145–184 (1972).

Siegel, J. M., Manger, P., Nienhuis, R., Fahringer, H. M. & Pettigrew, J. The echidna Tachyglossus aculeatus combines REM and non-REM aspects in a single sleep state: implications for the evolution of sleep. J. Neurosci. 16, 3500–3506 (1996).

Siegel, J. M. et al. Sleep in the platypus. Neuroscience 91, 391–400 (1999).

Mukhametov, L. M., Supin, A. Y. & Polyakova, I. G. Interhemispheric asymmetry of the electroencephalographic sleep patterns in dolphins. Brain Res. 134, 581–584 (1977).

Lyamin, O. I., Mukhametov, L. M. & Siegel, J. M. Relationship between sleep and eye state in Cetaceans and Pinnipeds. Arch. Ital. Biol. 142, 557–568 (2004).

Mukhametov, L. M., Lyamin, O. I., Chetyrbok, I. S., Vassilyev, A. A. & Diaz, R. P. Sleep in an Amazonian manatee, Trichechus inunguis. Experientia 48, 417–419 (1992).

Mukhametov, L. M., Lyamin, O. I., Shpak, O. V., Manger, P. & Siegel, J. M. Swimming styles and their relationship to rest and activity states in captive Commerson's dolphins. Proc. 14th Biennial Conference on the Biology of Marine Mammals 152 (2002).

Vanderwolf, C. H. & Baker, G. B. Evidence that serotonin mediates non-cholinergic neocortical low voltage fast activity, non-cholinergic hippocampal rhythmical slow activity and contributes to intelligent behavior. Brain Res. 374, 342–356 (1986).

Bergmann, B. M., Winter, J. B., Rosenberg, R. S. & Rechtschaffen, A. NREM sleep with low-voltage EEG in the rat. Sleep 10, 1–11 (1987).

Oleksenko, A. I., Mukhametov, L. M., Polykova, I. G., Supin, A. Y. & Kovalzon, V. M. Unihemispheric sleep deprivation in bottlenose dolphins. J. Sleep Res. 1, 40–44 (1992).

Siegel, J. M. & Tomaszewski, K. S. Behavioral organization of reticular formation: studies in the unrestrained cat. I. Cells related to axial, limb, eye, and other movements. J. Neurophysiol. 50, 696–716 (1983).

Lyamin, O., Pryaslova, J., Lance, V. & Siegel, J. Animal behaviour: continuous activity in cetaceans after birth. Nature 435, 1177 (2005).

Carskadon, M. A. & Dement, W. C. in Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine Vol. 4 (eds Kryger, M. H., Roth, T. & Dement, W. C.) 13–23 (Elsevier Saunders, Philadelphia, 2005).

Rattenborg, N. C. et al. Migratory sleeplessness in the white-crowned sparrow (Zonotrichia leucophrys gambelii). PLoS Biol. 2, E212 (2004).

Lyamin, O. I., Oleksenko, A. I., Polyakova, I. G. & Mukhametov, L. M. Paradoxical sleep in northern fur seals in water and on land. J. Sleep. Res. 5 (suppl.), 130–130 (1996).

Horne, J. A. REM sleep — by default? Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 24, 777–797 (2000).

Siegel, J. M. The REM sleep-memory consolidation hypothesis. Science 294, 1058–1063 (2001).

Huber, R., Ghilardi, M. F., Massimini, M. & Tononi, G. Local sleep and learning. Nature 430, 78–81 (2004).

Krueger, J. M., Obal, F. J. & Fang, J. Why we sleep: a theoretical view of sleep function. Sleep Med. Rev. 3, 119–129 (1999).

Vyazovskiy, V. V., Welker, E., Fritschy, J. M. & Tobler, I. Regional pattern of metabolic activation is reflected in the sleep EEG after sleep deprivation combined with unilateral whisker stimulation in mice. Eur. J. Neurosci. 20, 1363–1370 (2004).

Achermann, P. & Borbely, A. A. Mathematical models of sleep regulation. Front. Biosci. 8, s683–s693 (2003).

Verret, L., Leger, L., Fort, P. & Luppi, P. H. Cholinergic and noncholinergic brainstem neurons expressing Fos after paradoxical (REM) sleep deprivation and recovery. Eur. J. Neurosci. 21, 2488–2504 (2005).

Binks, P. G., Waters, W. F. & Hurry, M. Short-term total sleep deprivation does not selectively impair higher cortical functioning. Sleep 22, 328–334 (1999).

Balkin, T. J. et al. On the importance of countermeasures in sleep and performance models. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 75, A155–A157 (2004).

Villablanca, J. R. Counterpointing the functional role of the forebrain and of the brainstem in the control of the sleep-waking system. J. Sleep Res. 13, 179–208 (2004).

Everson, C. A. & Crowley, W. R. Reductions in circulating anabolic hormones induced by sustained sleep deprivation in rats. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 286, E1060–E1070 (2004).

O'Hara, B. F. et al. Gene expression in the brain across the hibernation cycle. J. Neurosci. 19, 3781–3790 (1999).

Lima, S. L., Rattenborg, N. C., Lesku, J. A. & Amlaner, C. J. Sleep under the risk of predation. Anim. Behav. 70, 723–736 (2005).

Merrick, A. W. & Scharp, D. W. Electroencephalography of resting behavior in cattle, with observations on the question of sleep. Am. J. Vet. Res. 32, 1893–1897 (1971).

Klemm, W. R. Sleep and paradoxical sleep in ruminants. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 121, 635–638 (1966).

Turner, N., Else, P. L. & Hulbert, A. J. An allometric comparison of microsomal membrane lipid composition and sodium pump molecular activity in the brain of mammals and birds. J. Exp. Biol. 208, 371–381 (2005).

Eiland, M. M. et al. Increases in amino-cupric-silver staining of the supraoptic nucleus after sleep deprivation. Brain Res. 945, 1–8 (2002).

Ramanathan, L., Gulyani, S., Nienhuis, R. & Siegel, J. M. Sleep deprivation decreases superoxide dismutase activity in rat hippocampus and brainstem. Neuroreport 13, 1387–1390 (2002).

Everson, C. A., Laatsch, C. D. & Hogg, N. Antioxidant defense responses to sleep loss and sleep recovery. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 288, R374–R383 (2005).

Gopalakrishnan, A., Ji, L. L. & Cirelli, C. Sleep deprivation and cellular responses to oxidative stress. Sleep 27, 27–35 (2004).

Zimmerman, J. E., Mackiewicz, M., Galante, R. J. et al. Glycogen in the brain of Drosophila melanogaster: diurnal rhythm and the effect of rest deprivation. J. Neurochem. 88, 32–40 (2004).

Allison, T. & Cicchetti, D. V. Sleep in mammals: ecological and constitutional correlates. Science 194, 732–734 (1976).

Nakanishi, H. et al. Positive correlations between cerebral protein synthesis rates and deep sleep in Macaca mulatta. Eur. J. Neurosci. 9, 271–279 (1997).

Guzman-Marin, R. et al. Sleep deprivation reduces proliferation of cells in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus in rats. J. Physiol. 549, 563–571 (2003).

Benington, J. H. & Heller, H. C. Restoration of brain energy metabolism as the function of sleep. Prog. Neurobiol. 45, 347–360 (1995).

Kong, J. et al. Brain glycogen decreases with increased periods of wakefulness: implications for homeostatic drive to sleep. J. Neurosci. 22, 5581–5587 (2002).

Franken, P., Gip, P., Hagiwara, G., Ruby, N. F. & Heller, H. C. Changes in brain glycogen after sleep deprivation vary with genotype. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 285, R413–R419 (2003).

Opp, M. R. & Krueger, J. M. Interleukin-1 is involved in responses to sleep deprivation in the rabbit. Brain. Res. 639, 57–65 (1994).

Xu, Y. L. et al. Neuropeptide S: a neuropeptide promoting arousal and anxiolytic-like effects. Neuron 43, 487–497 (2004).

Aserinsky, E. & Kleitman, N. Regularly occurring periods of eye motility, and concomitant phenomena, during sleep. Science 118, 273–274 (1953).

Schmidt, M. H., Valatx, J. L., Sakai, K., Fort, P. & Jouvet, M. Role of the lateral preoptic area in sleep-related erectile mechanisms and sleep generation in the rat. J. Neurosci. 20, 6640–6647 (2000).

Siegel, J. M. & Vertes, R. P. Sleep and memory: The ongoing debate, Rebuttal. Sleep 28, 1232–1233 (2005).

Vertes, R. P. Memory consolidation in sleep; dream or reality. Neuron 44, 135–148 (2004).

Jouvet-Mounier, D., Astic, L. & Lacote, D. Ontogenesis of the states of sleep in rat, cat, and guinea pig during the first postnatal month. Dev. Psychobiol. 2, 216–239 (1970).

Frank, M. G. & Heller, H. C. The ontogeny of mammalian sleep: a reappraisal of alternative hypotheses. J. Sleep Res. 12, 25–34 (2003).

Karlsson, K. A. E., Gall, A. J., Mohns, E. J., Seelke, A. M. H. & Blumberg, M. S. The neural substrates of infant sleep in rats. PLoS Biol. 3, e143 (2005).

Shaffery, J. P., Roffwarg, H. P., Speciale, S. G. & Marks, G. A. Ponto-geniculo-occipital-wave suppression amplifies lateral geniculate nucleus cell-size changes in monocularly deprived kittens. Brain Res. Dev. Brain Res. 114, 109–119 (1999).

Jouvet, M. in Cerebral Correlates of Conscious Experience. INSERM Symposium Vol. 6 (eds Buser, P. & Rougeul-Buser, A.) 245–261 (Elsevier/North-Holland Biomed., Amsterdam, 1978).

Snyder, F. Toward an evolutionary theory of dreaming. Am. J. Psychiatry 123, 121–136 (1966).

Horner, R. L., Sanford, L. D., Pack, A. I. & Morrison, A. R. Activation of a distinct arousal state immediately after spontaneous awakening from sleep. Brain Res. 778, 127–134 (1997).

Baker, F. C., Angara, C., Szymusiak, R. & McGinty, D. Persistence of sleep-temperature coupling after suprachiasmatic nuclei lesions in rats. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. (2005).

Wehr, T. A. A brain-warming function for REM sleep. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 16, 379–397 (1992).

Darchia, N., Campbell, I. G., Palagini, L. & Feinberg, I. Rapid eye movement density shows trends across REM periods but is uncorrelated with NREM delta in young and elderly human subjects. Brain Res. Bull. 63, 433–438 (2004).

Sanford, L. D., Tang, X., Ross, R. J. & Morrison, A. R. Influence of shock training and explicit fear-conditioned cues on sleep architecture in mice: strain comparison. Behav. Genet. 33, 43–58 (2003).

Gonzalez, M. M., Debilly, G., Valatx, J. L. & Jouvet, M. Sleep increase after immobilization stress: role of the noradrenergic locus coeruleus system in the rat. Neurosci. Lett. 202, 5–8 (1995).

Shaw, P. J., Cirelli, C., Greenspan, R. J. & Tononi, G. Correlates of sleep and waking in Drosophila melanogaster. Science 287, 1834–1837 (2000).

Siegel, J. M. & Rogawski, M. A. A function for REM sleep: regulation of noradrenergic receptor sensitivity. Brain Res. Rev. 13, 213–233 (1988).

Pedrazzoli, M. & Benedito, M. A. Rapid eye movement sleep deprivation-induced down-regulation of beta-adrenergic receptors in the rat brainstem and hippocampus. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 79, 31–36 (2004).

Tsai, L. L., Bergmann, B., Perry, B. & Rechtschaffen, A. Effects of chronic total sleep deprivation on central noradrenergic receptors in rat brain. Brain Res. 602, 221–227 (1993).

Hipolide, D. C., Tufik, S., Raymond, R. & Nobrega, J. N. Heterogeneous effects of rapid eye movement sleep deprivation on binding to alpha- and beta-adrenergic receptor subtypes in rat brain. Neuroscience 86, 977–987 (1998).

Hipolide, D. C. et al. Distinct effects of sleep deprivation on binding to norepinephrine and serotonin transporters in rat brain. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 29, 297–303 (2005).

Vogel, G. W. An alternative view of the neurobiology of dreaming. Am. J. Psychiatry 135, 1531–1535 (1978).

Rechtschaffen, A. & Bergmann, B. M. Sleep deprivation in the rat: an update of the 1989 paper. Sleep 25, 18–24 (2002).

Zenko, C. E., Bergmann, B. M. & Rechtschaffen, A. Vascular resistance in the rat during baseline, chronic total sleep deprivation, and recovery from total sleep deprivation. Sleep 23, 341–346 (2000).

Parmeggiani, P. L., Azzaroni, A. & Calasso, M. Systemic hemodynamic changes raising brain temperature in REM sleep. Brain Res. 940, 55–60 (2002).

Paxinos, G. & Watson, C. The Rat Brain in Stereotaxic Coordinates (Elsevier Academic Press, London, 2005).

Lyamin, O. I. et al. Unihemispheric slow wave sleep and the state of the eyes in a white whale. Behav. Brain Res. 129, 125–129 (2002).

Mukhametov, L. M. & Poliakova, I. G. [Electroencephalographic study of sleep in Sea of Azov porpoises]. Zh. Vyssh. Nerv. Deiat. Im. I. P. Pavlova 31, 333–339 (1981).

Mukhametov, L. M. Unihemispheric slow-wave sleep in the Amazonian dolphin, Inia geoffrensis. Neurosci. Lett. 79, 128–132 (1987).