Semantic processing and organization in free recall
Tóm tắt
It was hypothesized that both semantic processing and organizational activity are necessary for optimal free recall performance. In a series of three experiments, subjects were presented with a list of randomly selected nouns and were asked to make up a meaningful sentence for each noun. The subjects also rated the difficulty of using each noun. The subjects were instructed to try to remember words that were labeled “remember” words. For words that were labeled “story” words, the subjects were instructed only to make each sentence, using the word, part of an ongoing story which each subject was to make up. A test of retention for all presented words, using retention intervals of both 1 min and 24 h, showed that the story words were always recalled better than were the remember words. However, the amount of sequential organization was the same for both the story and the remember words. Recognition performance was found to be the same for both types of words. In addition, the story words were rated as being more difficult than the remember words. It was concluded that extensive semantic processing without organization is not sufficient for optimal recall
Tài liệu tham khảo
Banks, W. P. Signal detection theory and human memory.Psychological Bulletin, 1970,74, 81–99.
Bower, G. H. Organizational factors in memory.Cognitive Psychology, 1970,1, 18–46.
Bower, G. H. A selective review of organizational factors in memory. In E. Tulving & W. Donaldson (Eds.),Organizatton ot’Memor3,. New York: Academic Press, 1972.
Bower, G. H.. &Clark, M. C. Narrative stories as mediators tbr serial learning.Psychonomic Science, 1969,14, 181–182.
Craik, F. I. M. A “levels of analysis” view of memory. In P. Phner, L. Krames, & T. Alloway (Eds.).Communicatton and affect Language and thought. New York: Academic Press, 1973.
Craik, F. I. M., &Lockhart, R. S. Levels of processing: A framework tor memory research.Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1972,11, 671–684.
Covitz, H. F.Galton’s walk. New York: Harper & Row, 1970.
Deese, J., &Kayfnas, R. A. Serial effects in recall of unorganized and sequentially orgamzed verbal material.Journal ot Experimental Psychology, 1957,54, 180–187.
Eagle, M., &Leiter, E. Recall and recognition in intentional and incidental learning.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1964,68, 58–63.
Hyde, T. S. Dttferenttal etfects of effort and type of orienting task on recall and organization of highly associated words.Journal ol Experimental Psychology, 1973,97. 111–113.
Hyde, T. S., &Jenkins, J. J. Differential effects of incidental tasks on the organization of recall of a list of highly associated words.Journal o.! Experimental Psychology, 1969,82, 472–481.
Jenkins, J. J. Remember that old theory of memory? Well, forget it!American Psychologist, 1974,29, 785–795.
Mandler, G. Organization and memory. In K. W. Spence & J. T. Spence (Eds.),The ps.vchology of learning and motivation (Vol. 1). New York: Academic Press, 1967.
Mandler, G. Association and organization: Facts, fancies, and theories. In T. R. Dtxon & D. L. Horton (Eds.),Verbal behavtor and general behavior theory. Englewood Cliffs. N.J: Prentice-Hall, 1968.
Mandler, G. Words, lists, and categories: An experimental view of organized memory. In J. L. Cowan (Ed.),Studies in thought and language. Tucson, Ariz: University of Arizona Press, 1970.
Mandler, G. Organizatton and recognition. In E. Tulving & W Donaldson (Eds.).Organization of memory New York: Academic Press. 1972.
McNemar, Q.Psychologtcal statistics (3rd ed.). New York: Wiley, 1962.
Milier, G. A., Galanter, E., &Pribram, K. H.Plans and the structure of behavior. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1960.
Paivio, A., Yuille, J. C., & Madigan, S. A. Concreteness, imagery, and meaningfulness values for 925 nouns.Journal of Experimental Psychology. Monograph Supplement, 1968, 76(1, Pt. 2).
Postman, L. Short-term memory and incidental learning. In A. W. Melton (Ed.),Categories of human learning. New York: Academic Press, 1964.
Roediger, H. L. Inhibiting effects of recall.Memory & Cognition, 1974, 2, 261–269.
Slamecka, N. J. An examination of trace storage in free recall.Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1968,76, 504–513.
Till, R. E., &Jenkins, J. J. The effects of cued orienting tasks on the free recall of words.Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1973,12, 489–498
Tulving, E. Subjective organization in free recall of “unrelated words.”Psychological Review, 1962,69, 344–354.
Tulving, E. Theoretical issues in free recall. In T. R. Dixon & D. L. Horton (Eds.),Verbal behavior and general behavior theory. Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice-Hall, 1968.
Tulving, E. Episodic and semantic memory. In E. Tulving & W. Donaldson (Eds.),Organization of memory. New York: Academic Press, 1972.
Tulving, E., &Pearlstone, Z. Availability versus accessibility of information in memory for words.Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1966,5, 381–391.
Walsh, D. A., &Jenkins, J. J. Effects of orienting tasks on free recall in incidental learning: “Difficulty,” “effort,” and “process” explanations.Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1973,12, 481–488.