Ketamine sedation for pediatric procedures: Part 2, review and implications

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sedation regimens, Circulation, 50, 788, 10.1161/01.CIR.50.4.788 Gassner, 1974, The effect of ketamine on pulmonary artery pressure, Anaesthesia, 29, 141, 10.1111/j.1365-2044.1974.tb00612.x Morray, 1984, Hemodynamic effects of ketamine in children with congenital heart disease, Anesth Analg, 63, 895, 10.1213/00000539-198410000-00004 Corssen, 1969, A new parenteral anesthesia for oral surgery, J Oral Surg, 27, 627 Spoerel, 1970, Ketalar (CI-581) in paediatric dentistry: A field trial in three arctic communities, Can Anaesth Soc J, 17, 464, 10.1007/BF03004795 Birkhan, 1971, Ketamine dissociative anesthesia in pediatric oral surgery, J Oral Surg, 29, 853 Hellinger, 1971, Ketamine hydrochloride — A general anesthetic in oral surgery, JADA, 3, 349 Young, 1971, Ketamine hydrochloride in outpatient oral surgery in children, J Oral Surg, 29, 703 Bamber, 1973, Ketamine for out-patient dental conservation in children, Anaesthesia, 28, 446, 10.1111/j.1365-2044.1973.tb00496.x Carrel, 1973, 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Isr J Med Sci, 18, 760 Corssen, 1966, Recent advances in intravenous anesthesia, J Am Nurse Anesth, 34, 416 Corssen, 1966, Dissociative anesthesia — Further pharmacologic studies and first clinical experience with the phencyclidine derivative CI-581, Anesth Analg, 45, 29 King, 1967, A new intravenous or intramuscular anesthetic, Anesthesiology, 28, 258, 10.1097/00000542-196701000-00067 Iwai, 1967, Clinical application of CI-581 on children, Surgery, 29, 1053 Corssen, 1969, Changing concepts in pain control during surgery — Dissociative anesthesia with CI-581, Anesth Analg, 47, 746 Ginsberg, 1968, CI-581: A clinical report on 100 patients, South Afr Med J, 42, 1177 Ginsberg, 1969, Ketamine hydrochloride: A clinical investigation in 60 children, South Afr Med J, 43, 627 Brown, 1970, Ketamine — A new anaesthetic agent, Aust NZ J Surg, 39, 305, 10.1111/j.1445-2197.1970.tb05616.x Oduntan, 1970, Clinical trial of ketamine (CI-581): A preliminary report, Can Anaesth Soc J, 17, 411, 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27, 408, 10.1111/j.1365-2044.1972.tb08246.x Hollister, 1974, Side effects of ketamine in pediatric anesthesia, Anesth Analg, 53, 262, 10.1213/00000539-197403000-00020 Sussman, 1974, A comparative evaluation of ketamine anesthesia in children and adults, Anesthesiology, 40, 459, 10.1097/00000542-197405000-00012 D'Angelo, 1977, Ketamine — A 5-year study, J AOA, 77, 213 Modvig, 1973, Psychological changes in children after anesthesia: A comparison between halothane and ketamine, Acta Anaesthesiol Scand, 21, 541, 10.1111/j.1399-6576.1977.tb01258.x Kamm, 1978, Ketamine anaesthesia by continuous intravenous drip, Tropical Doctor, 8, 68, 10.1177/004947557800800207 Falls, 1966, CI-581 — An intravenous or intramuscular anesthetic for office ophthalmic surgery, Am J Ophthalmol, 61, 1093, 10.1016/0002-9394(66)90229-7 Corssen, 1967, A new parenteral anesthetic — CI-581: Its effect on intraocular pressure, J Pediatr Ophthalmol, 4, 20 Langrehr, 1967, Zur Narkose mit Ketamine (CI581): Bericht uber erste Erfahrungen in 500 Fallen, Anaesthesist, 16, 305 Podlesch, 1967, Erste Erfahrungen mit dem Phencyclidinderivat Ketamine (Cl 581), einem neuen intravenosen and intramuskularen Narkosemittel, Anaesthesist, 16, 299 Harris, 1968, The use of CI-581, a new parenteral anesthetic, in ophthalmic practice, Tr Am Ophthalmol Soc, 66, 206 Brueggemann, 1971, Ketamine anesthesia, Ophthal Surg, 2, 243 Yoshikawa, 1971, The effect of ketamine on intraocular pressure in children, Anesth Analg, 50, 199, 10.1213/00000539-197103000-00007 Mehta, 1972, Ketamine in paediatric ophthalmic practice, Anaesthesia, 27, 460, 10.1111/j.1365-2044.1972.tb08258.x Apivor, 1973, Ketamine in paediatric ophthalmological surgery, Anaesthesia, 28, 501, 10.1111/j.1365-2044.1973.tb00515.x Ausinsch, 1976, Ketamine and intraocular pressure in children, Anesth Analg, 55, 773, 10.1213/00000539-197611000-00005 Rothkoff, 1978, Ketamine anesthesia in strabismus surgery, J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabis, 15, 123, 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patients, Anesthesiology, 52, 231, 10.1097/00000542-198003000-00008 Cohen, 1973, Distribution in the brain and metabolism of ketamine in the rat after intravenous administration, Anesthesiology, 39, 370, 10.1097/00000542-197310000-00003 Clements, 1981, Pharmacokinetics and analgesic effect of ketamine in man, Br J Anaesth, 53, 27, 10.1093/bja/53.1.27 Finck, 1982, Opiate receptor mediation of ketamine analgesia, Anesthesiology, 56, 291, 10.1097/00000542-198204000-00011 Lodge, 1989, NMDA antagonism — Central to the action of ketamine on the brain Maurset, 1989, The analgesic effect of ketamine: Evidence for a nonopioid, PCP-receptor mediated mechanism Stella, 1984, Effect of naloxone on the loss of consciousness induced by IV anaesthetic agents in man, Br J Anaesth, 56, 369, 10.1093/bja/56.4.369 Amiot, 1985, Effect of naloxone on the loss of consciousness induced by IV ketamine, Br J Anaesth, 57, 930, 10.1093/bja/57.9.930 Smith, 1989, Ketamine analgesia and opiate receptor interactions Grant, 1983, Ketamine disposition in children and adults, Br J Anaesth, 55, 1107, 10.1093/bja/55.11.1107 Grant, 1981, Pharmacokinetics and analgesic effects of IM and oral ketamine, Br J Anaesth, 53, 805, 10.1093/bja/53.8.805 Cook, 1982, Pharmacokinetics of ketamine in infants and small children, Anesthesiology, 57, A428, 10.1097/00000542-198209001-00428 Trevor, 1989, Biotransformation of ketamine Chen, 1969, The pharmacology of ketamine Lo, 1975, Interaction between sedative premedicants and ketamine in man and in isolated perfused rat livers, Anesthesiology, 43, 307, 10.1097/00000542-197509000-00007 Rosen, 1989, Ketamine clinic: A model clinic for sedation of mentally handicapped patients undergoing routine gynecologic examinations Way, 1989, The pharmacology of the ketamine enantiomorphs 1989, Physicians' Desk Reference, 1558 Clark, 1981, Ketamine in modern dental practice, Clin Prevent Dent, 3, 23 Lockhart, 1972, Ketamine induced apnea in patients with increased intracranial 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incidence study in 136,929 patients, Acta Anaesthesiol Scand, 28, 567, 10.1111/j.1399-6576.1984.tb02121.x Corssen, 1972, Ketamine in the anesthetic management of asthmatic patients, Anesth Analg, 51, 588, 10.1213/00000539-197207000-00027 Stevens, 1981, Tolerance to rectal ketamine in paediatric anesthesia, Anaesthesia, 36, 1089, 10.1111/j.1365-2044.1981.tb08695.x Nishino, 1981, Modification of laryngospasm in response to changes in PaCO2 and PaO2 in the cat, Anesthesiology, 55, 286, 10.1097/00000542-198109000-00018 Ikari, 1980, Glottic closure reflex: Control mechanisms, Ann Otol, 89, 220 Baraka, 1978, Intravenous lidocaine controls extubation laryngospasm in children, Anesth Analg, 57, 506, 10.1213/00000539-197807000-00028 Sasaki, 1979, Development of laryngeal function: Etiologic significance in the sudden infant death syndrome, Laryngoscope, 89, 1964, 10.1288/00005537-197912000-00010 Smith, 1980 Huber, 1972, Ketamine: Its effect on airway resistance in man, South Med J, 65, 1176, 10.1097/00007611-197210000-00003 L'Hommedieu, 1987, The use of ketamine for the emergency intubation of patients with status asthmaticus, Ann Emerg Med, 16, 568, 10.1016/S0196-0644(87)80688-1 Strube, 1986, Ketamine by continuous infusion in status asthmaticus, Anaesthesia, 41, 1017, 10.1111/j.1365-2044.1986.tb12744.x Fisher, 1977, Ketamine hydrochloride in severe bronchospasm, Anaesthesia, 32, 771, 10.1111/j.1365-2044.1977.tb10079.x Rock, 1986, Use of ketamine in asthmatic children to treat respiratory failure refractory to conventional therapy, Crit Care Med, 14, 514, 10.1097/00003246-198605000-00019 Tweed, 1972, Circulatory responses to ketamine anesthesia, Anesthesiology, 37, 613, 10.1097/00000542-197212000-00008 Liao, 1979, Dual effect of ketamine on the peripheral vasculature, Anesthesiology, 51, 116, 10.1097/00000542-197909001-00116 Idvall, 1989, Ketamine and tissue perfusion during shock Brandt, 1989, Intramuscular ketamine in trauma patients Lundy, 1986, Differential effects of ketamine isomers on neuronal and extraneuronal catecholamine uptake mechanisms, Anesthesiology, 64, 359, 10.1097/00000542-198603000-00010 Hamilton, 1974, The effect of ketamine on transmembrane potentials of Purkinje fibres of the pig heart, Br J Anaesth, 46, 636, 10.1093/bja/46.9.636 Koehntop, 1977, Effects of pharmacologic alterations of adrenergic mechanisms of cocaine, tropolone, aminophylline, and ketamine on epinephrine-induced arrhythmias during halothane-nitrous oxide anesthesia, Anesthesiology, 46, 83, 10.1097/00000542-197702000-00001 Miller, 1986, 228 Miller, 1986, 813 Churchill-Davidson, 1984 Ivankovich, 1975, The effects of ketamine and Innovar anesthesia on digitalis tolerance in dogs, Anesth Analg, 54, 106, 10.1213/00000539-197501000-00022 Bednarski, 1988, Reduction of the ventricular arrhythmogenic dose of epinephrine by ketamine administration in halothane-anesthetized cats, Am J Vet Res, 49, 350 Dowdy, 1968, Studies of the mechanism of cardiovascular responses to CI-181, Anesthesiology, 29, 931, 10.1097/00000542-196809000-00014 Smith, 1979, The effects of ketamine on the canine coronary circulation, Anaesthesia, 34, 555, 10.1111/j.1365-2044.1979.tb06341.x Radnay, 1973, Generalized extensor spasm in infants following ketamine anesthesia, Anesthesiology, 39, 459, 10.1097/00000542-197310000-00029 Winters, 1972, Epilepsy or anesthesia with ketamine, Anesthesiology, 36, 309, 10.1097/00000542-197204000-00001 Thompson, 1972, Ketamine-induced convulsions, Anesthesiology, 37, 662, 10.1097/00000542-197212000-00024 Davis, 1976, Ketamine — Use in severe febrile convulsions, Med J Aust, 2, 465, 10.5694/j.1326-5377.1976.tb130336.x Kyff, 1989, The pros and cons of ketamine use in the ICU Corssen, 1974, Ketamine and epilepsy, Anesth Analg, 53, 319, 10.1213/00000539-197403000-00041 Celesia, 1975, Effects of ketamine in epilepsy, Neurology, 25, 169, 10.1212/WNL.25.2.169 Myslobodsky, 1981, Ketamine: Convulsant or anti-convulsant?, Pharmacol Biochem Behavior, 14, 27, 10.1016/0091-3057(81)90099-X Church, 1989, Anticonvulsant actions of ketamine, with particular reference to N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor-mediated events Artru, 1989, Hypocapnia or diazepam reverses, and midazolam or fentanyl attenuates ketamine-induced increase of cerebral blood volume and/or CSF pressure Takeshita, 1972, The effects of ketamine on cerebral circulation and metabolism in man, Anesthesiology, 36, 69, 10.1097/00000542-197201000-00013 Sharpiro, 1972, Ketamine anaesthesia in patients with intracranial pathology, Br J Anaesth, 44, 1200, 10.1093/bja/44.11.1200 Evans, 1971, Ketamine in neurosurgical procedures, Lancet, 1, 40, 10.1016/S0140-6736(71)80041-7 Willatts, 1980, Ketamine requirement in children, Br J Anaesth, 52, 840, 10.1093/bja/52.8.840-a Lipton, 1989, Mechanisms of protective action of ketamine during ischemia in the rat hippocampal slice Nelson, 1980, Ketamine-induced changes in regional glucose utilization in the rat brain, Anesthesiology, 52, 330, 10.1097/00000542-198004000-00009 Sklar, 1981, Adverse reactions to ketamine anaesthesia — Abolition by a psychological technique, Anesthesia, 36, 183, 10.1111/j.1365-2044.1981.tb08721.x Meyers, 1978, Prolonged adverse reactions to ketamine in children, Anesthesiology, 49, 39, 10.1097/00000542-197807000-00011 Fine, 1973, Sensory disturbances following ketamine anesthesia: Recurrent hallucinations, Anesth Analg, 52, 428, 10.1213/00000539-197305000-00027 Johnstone, 1973, A ketamine trip, Anesthesiology, 39, 460, 10.1097/00000542-197310000-00031 Khorramzadeh, 1976, Personality predisposition and emergence phenomena with ketamine, Psychosomatics, 17, 94, 10.1016/S0033-3182(76)71152-6 Collier, 1981, Long-term dangers of ketamine anaesthesia, Br J Anaesth, 53, 552, 10.1093/bja/53.5.552 Collier, 1972, Ketamine and the conscious mind, Anaesthesia, 27, 120, 10.1111/j.1365-2044.1972.tb08186.x Coppel, 1973, The taming of ketamine, Anaesthesia, 28, 293, 10.1111/j.1365-2044.1973.tb00449.x Knox, 1970, Clinical studies of induction agents — Ketamine, Br J Anaesth, 42, 875, 10.1093/bja/42.10.875 Lilburn, 1976, Lorazepam-ketamine preliminary report, Br J Anaesth, 48, 1125 Liang, 1975, Minimizing emergence phenomena: Subdissociative dosage of ketamine in balanced surgical anesthesia, Anesth Analg, 54, 312, 10.1213/00000539-197505000-00009 Cartwright, 1984, Midazolam and diazepam in ketamine anesthesia, Anaesthesia, 39, 439, 10.1111/j.1365-2044.1984.tb07312.x Albin, 1989, Control of emergence reactions after ketamine hydrochloride: A review Vinnik, 1981, An intravenous dissociation technique for outpatient plastic surgery: Tranquility in the office surgical facility, Plast Reconstr Surg, 67, 799, 10.1097/00006534-198106000-00016 Martinez-Aguirre, 1986, Comparison of midazolam and diazepam as complement of ketamine-air anesthesia in children, Acta Anesthesiol Belg, 37, 15 Perel, 1976, Recurrent hallucinations following ketamine, Anaesthesia, 31, 1081, 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