‘Language is only a tool’: Japanese expatriates working in China and implications for language teaching

Multilingual Education - Tập 3 - Trang 1-20 - 2013
Ryuko Kubota1
1Department of Language and Literacy Education, Faculty of Education, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada

Tóm tắt

Drawing on a qualitative case study, this article questions two prevailing assumptions: that English is a universal lingua franca and that English proficiency is indispensable for transcultural work. The study involved Japanese manufacturing companies with subsidiaries in China and investigated the language use of Japanese expatriates and Chinese office workers as well as the views of participants (including managers in Japan) about competencies deemed important for overseas work. Interview data revealed that the major languages used were Japanese and to a lesser extent Mandarin. Although English proficiency was deemed useful, the primary importance was placed on the “ability to communicate’’ supported by communicative and foundational dispositions along with cultural knowledge. These findings pose a challenge for critiquing neoliberal underpinnings.

Tài liệu tham khảo

Amelina M: Do other languages than English matter?: International career development of highly-qualified professionals. In Multilingualism at work: From policies to practices in public, medical and business settings. Edited by: Meyer B, Apfelbaum B. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company; 2010:235–252. Bargiela-Chiappini F: Introduction: Business discourse. In The handbook of business discourse. Edited by: Bargiela-Chiappini F. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press; 2009:1–15. Bloch B: Career enhancement through foreign language skills. The International Journal of Career Management. 1995, 7(6):15–26. 10.1108/09556219510098073 Block D: Niche lingual francas: An ignored phenomenon. TESOL Q. 2007, 41: 561–566. Block D, Gray J, Holborow M: Neoliberalism and applied linguistics. Abingdon, UK: Routledge; 2012. Blommaert Y: The sociolinguistics of globalization. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; 2010. Blommaert Y, Collins J, Slembrouck S: Spaces of multilingualism. Language & Communication 2005, 25: 197–216. 10.1016/j.langcom.2005.05.002 Butler YG: Foreign language education at elementary schools in Japan: Searching for solutions amidst growing diversification. Current Issues in Language Planning 2007, 8: 129–147. 10.2167/cilp115.0 Butler YG, Iino M: Current Japanese reforms in English language education: The 2003 “Action Plan. Language Policy 2005, 4: 25–45. 10.1007/s10993-004-6563-5 Byram M: Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters; 1997. Byram M: From foreign language education to education for intercultural citizenship: Essays and reflections. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters; 2008. Canale M: From communicative competence to communicative language pedagogy. In Language and communication. Edited by: Richards JC, Schmidt RW. London: Longman; 1983:2–27. Council of Europe: Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2001. Duff P: Language socialization, higher education, and work. In Encyclopedia of language and education, 2nd edition, volume 8: Language socialization. Edited by: Duff PA, Hornberger N. Springer Science + Business Media LLC; 2008:257–270. Duff P, Wong P, Early M: Learning language for work and life: The linguistic socialization of immigrant Canadians seeking careers in health care. Can Mod Lang Rev 2000, 57: 9–57. 10.3138/cmlr.57.1.9 Forey G, Lockwood J: “I’d love to put someone in jail for this”: An initial investigation of English in the business processing outsourcing (BPO) industry. Engl. Specif. Purp. 2007, 26: 308–326. 10.1016/j.esp.2006.09.005 Goldstein T: Two languages at work: Bilingual life on the production floor. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter; 1997. Gottlieb N: Japan: Language policy and planning in transition. Current Issues Language Planning 2008, 9: 1–68. 10.2167/cilp116.0 Graddol D: English next: Why global English may mean the end of “English as a Foreign Language.. London: British Council; 2006. Grin F, Sfreddo C, Vaillancourt F: The economics of the multilingual workplace. New York: Routledge; 2010. Harper H, Peirce B, Burnaby B: English-in-the-workplace for garment workers: A feminist project? Gend. Educ. 1996, 8: 5–19. 10.1080/713668482 Heller M: Globlization, the new economy, and the commodification of language and identity. J. Socioling. 2003, 7: 473–492. 10.1111/j.1467-9841.2003.00238.x Hirtt N: Markets and education in the era of globalized capitalism. In Global neoliberalism and education and its consequences. Edited by: Hill D, Kumar R. New York: Routledge; 2009:208–226. Holmes J: Power and politeness in the workplace: A sociolinguistic analysis of talk at work. London: Longman; 2003. Hwang M-J: Brush talk at the conversation table: Interaction between L1 and L2 speakers of Chinese (doctoral dissertation). Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai‘i; 2009. Hyslop-Margison EJ, Graham B: Principles for democratic learning in career education. Can. J. Educ. 2001, 26: 341–361. 10.2307/1602212 Jenkins J, Cogo A, Dewey M: Review of developments in research into English as a lingua franca. Lang. Teach. 2011, 44: 281–315. 10.1017/S0261444811000115 Kachru Y, Smith L: Cultures, contexts and world Englishes. New York: Routledge; 2008. Kawai Y: Japanese Nationalism and the global spread of English: An analysis of Japanese governmental and public discourses on English. Language and Intercultural Communication 2007, 7: 37–55. 10.2167/laic174.0 Kirkpatrick A: World Englishes: Implications for international communication and English language teaching. Cambridge: UK: Cambridge University Press; 2007. Kramsch C, Whiteside A: Three fundamental concepts in second language acquisition and their relevance in multilingual contexts. Mod Lang J 2007, 91: 907–922. Kramsch C, Whiteside A: Language ecology in multilingual settings. Towards a theory of symbolic competence. Applied Linguistics 2008, 29: 645–671. 10.1093/applin/amn022 Kubota R: Questioning linguistic instrumentalism: English, neoliberalism, and language tests in Japan. Linguistics and Education 2011, 22: 248–260. 10.1016/j.linged.2011.02.002 Kubota R: The politics of EIL: Toward border-crossing communication in and beyond English. In Principles and practices of teaching English as an international language. Edited by: Matsuda A. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters; 2012:55–69. Kubota R, McKay S: Globalization and language learning in rural Japan: The role of English in the local linguistic ecology. TESOL Q. 2009, 43: 593–619. Lin A, Kubota R: Discourse and race. In The Continuum companion to discourse analysis. Edited by: Hyland K, Paltridge B. Continuum; 2011:277–290. Lippi-Green R: English with an accent: Language, ideology, and discrimination in the United States. 2nd edition. London and New York: Routledge; 2012. Matsuura H, Fujieda M, Mahoney S: The officialization of English and ELT in Japan: 2000. World Englishes. 2004, 23: 471–487. 10.1111/j.0883-2919.2004.00369.x McKay SL, Bokhorst-Heng WD: International English in its sociolinguistic contexts: Towards a socially sensitive EIL pedagogy. New York: Routledge; 2008. McNamara T: Managing learning: Authority and language assessment. Lang. Teach. 2011, 44: 500–515. 10.1017/S0261444811000073 MEXT (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology). Action plan to cultivate “Japanese with English abilities.”; 2003. Retrieved December 19, 2011 from http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/shingi/chukyo/chukyo4/007/gijiroku/03032401/009.pdf Retrieved December 19, 2011 from Mufwene SS: Globalization, global English, and world English(es): Myths and facts. In The handbook of language and globalization. Edited by: Coupland N. Malden, MA: Wiley; 2010:31–55. Nakatani Y: The effects of awareness-raising training on oral communication strategy use. Mod. Lang. J. 2005, 89: 76–91. 10.1111/j.0026-7902.2005.00266.x Nebashi R: Chûgoku shinshutsu nikkei kigyô ni oite jûgyôin ga konnan o kanjite ita kôdô: Mensetsu chôsa no jiyû kaitô bunseki kara [Behaviors perceived challenging by employees at Japanese companies in China: Analysis of open-ended responses in structured interviews]. In Beikoku Chûgoku shinshutsu nikkei kigyô ni okeru ibunkakan comyunikêshon masatsu [Intercultural communication conflicts at Japanese companies in the United States and China]. Edited by: Nishida H. Tokyo: Kazama Shobô; 2007:439–461. Nieto S, Bode P: Affirming diversity: The socio-political context of multicultural education. 5th edition. Boston: Allyn & Bacon; 2008. Norton B: Identity and language learning: Gender, ethnicity and educational change. London: Longman; 2000. Park JS-Y: Naturalization of competence and the neoliberal subject: Success stories of English language learning in the Korean conservative press. J Linguistic Anthropology 2010, 20: 22–38. 10.1111/j.1548-1395.2010.01046.x Park JS-Y: The promise of English: Linguistic capital and the neoliberal worker in the South Korean job market. Int J Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 2011, 14: 443–455. 10.1080/13670050.2011.573067 Phillipson R: Linguistic imperialism continued. New York and London: Routledge; 2009. Piekkari R: Language and careers in multinational corporations. In International management and language. Edited by: Tietze S. London: Routledge; 2008:128–137. Piekkari R: International management. In The handbook of business discourse. Edited by: Bargiela-Chiappini F. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press; 2009:269–278. Roberts C: Multilingualism in the workplace. In Handbook of multilingualism and multilingual communication. Edited by: Auer P, Wei L. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter; 2007:405–422. Rogerson-Revell P: Using English for international business: A European case study. Engl. Specif. Purp. 2007, 26: 103–120. 10.1016/j.esp.2005.12.004 Rogerson-Revell P: Participation and performance in international business meetings. Engl. Specif. Purp. 2008, 27: 338–360. 10.1016/j.esp.2008.02.003 Seidlhofer B: Understanding English as a lingua franca. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2011. Sharifian F (Ed): English as an international language: Perspectives and pedagogical issues. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters; 2009. Skutnabb-Kangas T: Linguistic genocide in education Or worldwide diversity and human rights?. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 2000. Sunaoshi Y: Historical context and intercultural communication: Interactions between Japanese and American factory workers in the American South. Lang. Soc. 2005, 34: 185–217. Tanaka H: Japan. In The handbook of business discourse. Edited by: Bargiela-Chiappini F. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press; 2009:332–344. Toyo Keisai: Kaigai shinshutsu kigyô: Kuni betsu hen [Companies overseas: Country version]. Tokyo: Tôyô Keizai Shinpô Sha; 2009. Urciuoli B: Skills and selves in the new workplace. Am. Ethnol. 2008, 35: 211–228. 10.1111/j.1548-1425.2008.00031.x Urciuoli B: Neoliberal education: Preparing the student for the new workplace. In Ethonographies of neoliberalism. Edited by: Greenhouse CJ. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press; 2010:162–176. Williams G: The knowledge economy, language and culture. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters; 2010. Wozniak S: Language needs analysis from a perspective of international professional mobility: The case of French mountain guides. Engl. Specif. Purp. 2010, 29: 243–252. 10.1016/j.esp.2010.06.001