“Black people don’t love nature”: white environmentalist imaginations of cause, calling, and capacity
Tóm tắt
I examine how white British members of a London-area environmental group conceptualize race in relation to ecological disasters. Based on a five-year (2018–2022) ethnographic study, members employed racialized narratives and symbolic boundaries to construct who was the cause of disasters, who had the moral responsibility or calling to remediate disasters, and who possessed the adequate resources and capacity to fix disasters. Together, these narratives formed a tripartite racial imaginary which functioned to demarcate the symbolic boundaries of an ideal, white racial identity that was intimately crocheted with notions of authentic guilt and remorse, responsibility and liability, work ethics, competent knowledge, resource mobilization, moral commitment, and racial paternalism and superiority. Through the pursuit of this White racial ideal, members frequently conceptualized ecological disasters throughout the non-white world as the fault of specific actions by non-White people, identified unique racialized actors as the proper responsible parties for working on the remediation of ecological disasters, and also assigned particular White people from Westernized, industrial, democratic states as the only people in possession of the appropriate knowledge, resources, and character to clean-up and manage a healthy environment.
Tài liệu tham khảo
Adams, V. (2013). Markets of Sorrow, Labors of Faith. Durham, NC: Duke University Press
Agger, A. (2012). Towards tailor-made participation: How to involve different types of citizens in participatory governance. Town Planning Review, 83, 29–45
Agyeman, J. (2002). Constructing Environmental (in) Justice: Transatlantic Tales. Environmental Politics, 11(3), 31–53
Aldrich, D. P. (2011). The externalities of strong social capital: Post-tsunami recovery in Southeast India. Journal of Civil Society, 7(1), 81–99
Berger, P. L. and Luckman, T. (1966). The Social Construction of Reality: A treatise in the sociology of knowledge. Garden City, NY: Doubleday
Binu, J., Mawson, A. R., & Payton, M., and Guignard, J. C. (2008). Disaster Mythology and Fact: Hurricane Katrina and Social Attachment. Public Health Reports, 123(5), 555–566
Bolin, R. C. (2007). Race, Class, Ethnicity, and Disaster Vulnerability. Pp. 113–129 in Handbook of Disaster Research, edited by H. Rodríguez, E.L. Quarantelli, and R. Dynes. Springer
Bolin, R. C., Grineski, S., and Collins, T. (2005). The Geography of Despair: Environmental Racism and the Making of South Phoenix, Arizona, USA. Research in Human Ecology, 12(2), 156–168
Bolin, R. and Stanford, L. (1991). “Shelter, Housing and Recovery: A Comparison of U.S. Disasters.” Disasters15(1):24–34
Bonilla-Silva, E. (2020). “Color-Blind Racism in Pandemic Times.“ Sociology of Race and Ethnicity
Browne, J. (1996). “Biogeography and Empire.” Pp. 305–321 in Cultures of Natural History, edited by N. Jardine, J. A. Secord, and E. C. Spary. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press
Bullard, R. D., Johnson, G. S., Johnson, and Torres, A. O. (2000). Sprawl City: Race, Politics, and Planning in Atlanta. Island Press
Bullard, R. D. (2007). “Equity, Unnatural Man-Made Disasters, and Race: Why Environmental Justice Matters. Research in Social Problems and Public Policy, 15, 51–85
Carrington, D. (2020). “Coronavirus: ‘Nature is sending us a message’, says UN environment chief.” The Guardian, 25 March. Accessed: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/25/coronavirus-nature-is-sending-us-a-message-says-un-environment-chief
Carter, C. (2018). “Blood in the Soil: The Racial, Racist, and Religious Dimensions of Environmentalism.” Pp. 45–62 in The Bloomsbury Handbook of Religion and Nature: The Elements, edited by L. Hobgood and W. Bauman. New York: Bloomsbury Academic
Cherry, G. E. (1974). The Evolution of British Town Planning: A History of Town Planning in the United Kingdom During the Twentieth Century and of the Royal Town Planning Institute. Leighton Buzzard: Leonard Hill
Cole, L. W., and Sheila, R. (2001). From the Ground Up: Environmental Racism and the Rise of the Environmental Justice Movement. New York: New York University Press
Connell, R. W. (1995). Masculinities. Cambridge, MA: Polity Press.
Cooke, B. and Kothari, U. (2001). Participation: The New Tyranny?. London: Zed Books
Cullingworth, B. and Nadin, V. (2002). Town and Country Planning in the UK, 13th edition. London and New York: Routledge
Daly, N. (2020). “Fake animal news abounds on social media as coronavirus upends life.” National Geographic, March 20. Accessed: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/coronavirus-pandemic-fake-animal-viral-social-media-posts
Danaan, V. V. (2018). Analysing poverty in Nigeria through theoretical lenses. Journal of Sustainable Development, 11(1), 20–31
Demetriou, Demetrakis Z. (2001). “Connell’s concept of hegemonic masculinity: A critique.” Theory and Society, 30(3), 337–361.
Drayton, R. (2000). Nature’s Government: Science, Imperialism and the ‘Improvement’ of the World. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press
Ewick, P. and Silbey, S. (2003). Narrating Social Structure: Stories of resistance to legal authority. American Journal of Sociology, 108(6), 1328–1372
Farber, D. (2011). “Navigating the intersection of environmental law and disaster law.“Bingham Young University Law Review1783
Figueroa, R. M. (2004). “Bivalent environmental justice and the culture of poverty.“Rutgers Journal of Law and Urban Policy
Funabashi, Y. and Kitazawa, K. (2012). Fukushima in review: A complex disaster, a disastrous response. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 14, 917–937
Gafford, F. D. (2010). Rebuilding the Park: The Impact of Hurricane Katrina on a Black middle-class neighborhood. Journal of Black Studies, 41(2), 385–404
Gaillard, J. C., Clavé, E., Vibert, O., Denain, J. C., Efendi, Y., Grancher, D., & Liamzon, C. C., Desy Rosnita Sari, and Ryo Setiawan. 2008. “Ethnic groups’ response to the 26 December 2004 earthquake and tsunami in Aceh, Indonesia.“Natural Hazards47(1):17–38
Gibson, D. (2002). Environmentalism: Ideology and Power. Huntington, NY: Nova Science Publishers
Hartman, C., and Squires, G. D. (2006). There is no such thing as a natural disaster: Race, Class, and Hurricane Katrina. New York, NY: Routledge
Haumann, S. (2011). Editorial. Participation and the modernization process. Planning Perspectives, 26(1), 1–2
Hewitt, K. (1997). Regions of Risk: A Geographical Introduction to Disasters. Reading, MA: AddisonWesley Longman
Hewitt, L. and Pendlebury, J. (2013). “Civic Associations and Urban Communities: Local History, Place-Making, and Activism in Twentieth-Century Britain.” Bristol, UK. Connected Communities, University of Bristol
Howard, J. A. (2000). Social Psychology of Identities. Annual Review of Sociology, 26, 367–393
Hsu, D. W. (2017). Vulnerability and resilience during disasters: Structural constraints and survivors’ agency in the 2008 Sichuan earthquake. China Information, 31(3), 371–390
Hughey, M. W. (2022). “Superposition Strategies: How and Why White People Say Contradictory Things about Race.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 119(9): 1–8
Hughey, M. W. (2017). Race and Racism: Perspectives from Bahá’í Theology and Critical Sociology. Journal of Bahá’í Studies, 27(3), 7–56
Hughey, M. W. (2012). White Bound: Nationalists, Antiracists, and the Shared Meanings of Race. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press
Hughey, M. W. (2010). “The (Dis)similarities of White Racial Identities: The Conceptual Framework of ‘Hegemonic Whiteness.’. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 33(8), 1289–1309
James, P. and van Seeters, P. (2014). Globalization and Politics, Vol. 2: Global Social Movements and Global Civil Society. London, UK: Sage
Kashwan, Prakash, Rosaleen V. Duffy, Francis Massé, Adeniyi P. Asiyanbi, and Esther Marijnen (2021). “From Racialized Neocolonial Global Conservation to an Inclusive and Regenerative Conservation.” Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development, 63(4), 4–19.
Klinenberg, E. (2002). Heat Wave: A Social Autopsy of Disaster in Chicago. Chicago: University of Chicago Press
Kobayashi, A. and Peake, L. (2008). Racism in Place. Pp 171–198 in Feminisms in Geography: Rethinking Space, Place, and Knowledges, edited by P. Moss and K. F. Al-Hindi. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield
Koerner, L. (1996). “Carl Linnaeus in his Time and Place.” Pp. 145–162 in Cultures of Natural History, edited by N. Jardine, J. A. Secord, and E. C. Spary. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press
Laird, R. M. (1991). Ethnography of a Disaster. Unpublished Masters Thesis. San Francisco, CA: San Francisco State University
Lamont, M. and Fournier, M. (1992). Cultivating Differences: Symbolic Boundaries and the Making of Inequality. Chicago: University of Chicago Press
Letcher, A. (2006). “‘There’s Bulldozers in the Fairy Garden’: Re-enchantment Narratives within British Eco-Paganism.” Pp. 175–186 in Popular Spiritualities: The Politics of Contemporary Enchantment, edited by L. Hume and K. McPhillips. Hants, England: Ashgate Publishing Limited
Lewis, A. E. (2004). What Group? Studying Whites and Whiteness in the Era of Colorblindness. Sociological Theory, 22(4), 623–646
Maldonado, J. (2016). Considering culture in disaster practice. Annals of Anthropological Practice, 40(1), 52–60
Mercer, J., Gaillard, J. V., Crowley, K., Shannon, R., Alexander, B., Day, S., and Becker, J. (2012). “Culture and disaster risk reduction: Lessons and opportunities.” Environmental Hazards 11(2):74–95
McKinzie, A. E. (2017). A Tale of Two Cities: Variations in Perceptions of Disaster Recovery and the Importance of Intersectionality. Sociology of Race and Ethnicity, 3(4), 522–537
Mukerji, C. (2017). Modernity Reimagined: An Analytic Guide. New York: Routledge
Myers, J. (2005). Converging Stories: Race, Ecology, and Environmental Justice in American Literature. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press
OCHA (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) (2018). “Nigeria: Large-scale floods affect close to two million people.” 11 Oct. Accessed: https://www.unocha.org/story/nigeria-large-scale-floods-affect-close-two-million-people
Olanrewaju, C. C., Chitakira, M., Olanrewaju, O. A., and Louw, E. (2019). Impacts of flood disasters in Nigeria: A critical evaluation of health implications and management. Jamba, 11(10), 557
Oliver-Smith, A. and Susanna Hoffman (1999). The Angry Earth: Disaster in Anthropological Perspective. New York, NY: Routledge
Omi, M. and Winant, H. (1994). Racial Formation in the United States. New York, NY: Routledge
Phillips, B. (1993). Cultural Diversity in Disaster: Shelter, Housing, and Long-term Recovery. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 11(1), 99–110
Phillips, J. D. (2018). The Culture of Poverty: On Individual Choices and Infantilizing Bureaucracies. Pp 383–401 in Cultural Competence in Applied Psychology, edited by C. L. Frisby and W. T. O’Donohue. Cham, Switzerland: Springer
Polletta, F. (2006). It was like a fever: Storytelling in Protest and Politics. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press
Porter, D. (1991). ‘Enemies of the race’: biologism, environmentalism, and public health in Edwardian England. Victorian Studies, 34(2), 159–178
Pritchard, S. B. (2012). An envirotechnical disaster: Disaster, nature, technology, and politics at Fukushima. Environmental History, 17, 219–243
Pulido, L. (2016). Flint, Environmental Racism, and Racial Capitalism. Capitalism Nature Socialism, 27(3), 1–16
Ragin, C. C., and Howard, S. B. (1992). What Is a Case? Exploring the Foundations of Social Inquiry. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press
Raj, K. (2007). Relocating Modern Science: Circulation and the Construction of Knowledge in South Asia and Europe, 1650–1900. London: Palgrave Macmillan
Ruck, C. A. P., Bigwood, J., Staples, D., Ott, J. and Wasson, R. G. 1979. Entheogens. Journal of Psychedelic Drugs 11 (1–2):145–146
Ruffin, K. N. (2010). Black on Earth: African American Ecoliterary Traditions. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press
Sandercock, L. (2005). The democratization of planning: elusive or illusory?’. Planning Theory and Practice, 6(4), 437–441
Santos, M. R., Russo, J., Aisenberg, G., Uehara, E., Ghesquiere, A., Zatick, D. F. (2008). Ethnic/racial diversity and posttraumatic distress in the acute care medical setting. Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes, 71(3), 234–245
Scalercio, M. (2018). Dominating nature and colonialism. Francis Bacon’s view of Europe and the New World. History of European Ideas, 44(8), 1076–1091
Schnaiberg, A., Pellow, D. N., and Weinberg, A. (2005). “The Treadmill of Production and the Environmental State. ” In New Developments in Environmental Sociology. Edward Elgar Publishing
Schulte, P. (1991). The politics of disaster: An examination of class and ethnicity in the struggle for power following the 1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake in Watsonville, California. Unpublished Masters Thesis. Sacramento, CA: California State University
Somers, M. and Gibson, G. (1994). “Reclaiming the epistemological “other”: Narrative and the social constitution of identity.” In Social Theory and the Politics of Identity, edited by C. Calhoun. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell
Steinberg, T. (2000). Acts of God: The Unnatural History of Natural Disaster in America. New York: Oxford University Press
Sweeney, K. A. (2006). “The blame game: Racialized responses to Hurricane Katrina.“. Du Bois Review, 3(1), 161
Taylor, D. E. (1997). “American environmentalism: the role of race, class and gender in shaping activism 1820–1995.“Race, Gender & Class16–62
Tilly, C. (2004). Social Movements, 1768–2004. Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers
United Nations, Convention on Biological Diversity (2020). “Update on the Zero Draft of the Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework.” Accessed: https://www.cbd.int/doc/c/3064/749a/0f65ac7f9def86707f4eaefa/post2020-prep-02-01-en.pdf
Voorhees, C. C. W., Vick, J., and Perkins, D. D. (2007). ‘Came hell and high water’: The intersection of Hurricane Katrina, the news media, race and poverty. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 17(6), 415–429
Wang, Y., Zhu, Y., and Sui, Q. (2017). Ethnic groups differences in domestic recovery after the catastrophe: a case study of the 2008 magnitude 7.9 earthquake in China. International journal of environmental research and public health, 14(6), 590
Weber, L., and Peek, L. (2012). Displaced: Life in the Katrina Diaspora. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press
Weber, M. (1949). “‘Objectivity’ in social science and social policy.” In The Methodology of the Social Sciences, translated and edited by E. Shils and H. Finch, pp.49–112. Glencoe, IL: Free Press
Wetherell, M., and Nigel E. (1999). “Negotiating hegemonic masculinity: Imaginary positions and psycho-discursive practices.” Feminism Psychology, 9(3), 335-356.
White, S. (2002). Thinking race, thinking development. Third World Quarterly, 23(3), 407–419
Wisner, B. and Walker, B. (2005). “The world conference on disaster viewed through the lens of political ecology: A dozen big questions for Kobe and beyond.“ Capitalism Nature Socialism 16(2):89–95
Wisner, B., Blaikie, P., Cannon, T., and Davis, I. (2003). At Risk: Natural Hazards, People’s Vulnerability and Disasters. New York: Routledge
Wood, P. B. (1996). “The Science of Man.” Pp. 197–210 in Cultures of Natural History, edited by N. Jardine, J. A. Secord, and E. C. Spary. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press
World Risk Report: Analysis and Prospects 2017. Berlin, Germany:Bündnis Entwicklung Hilft
Zuber, D. (2021). “‘In the Woods We Return to Reason and Faith’: American Romanticism, Environmentalism, and Seeker Spirituality.” Pp. 561–577 in Handbook of American Romanticism, edited by P. Löffler, C. Spahr, and J. Stievermann. Berlin: De Gruyter