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For policy implementation to involve this major ownership group in climate change mitigation activities in this region, it is important to understand their forest management motivations and understanding toward carbon sequestration. This study develops a regional typology of NIPF landowners based on reasons for owning forest land in the southern US. The specific goals were to: (1) segment NIPF landowners into smaller homogeneous groups based on reasons for owning forest land; (2) identify landownership characteristics and forest management behavior by ownership groups; and (3) assess their climate change beliefs and understanding of forest carbon sequestration by ownership groups. A principal component-cluster analysis of 735 responses to a mail questionnaire distributed to NIPF landowners in the southern US revealed three groups, which were named amenity, multi-objective, and timber-oriented landowners. The amenity group included 21% of the landowners, while the timber and multi-objective groups included 40% and 39% of the landowners, respectively. These landowner groups varied in terms of owner characteristics, forest species type and management behavior, climate change beliefs and understanding of carbon sequestration. The amenity and multi-objective owners tend to have more positive belief toward climate change than the timber group, but more landowners in each group indicated having poor understanding of forest carbon sequestration. The study fills a knowledge gap in research efforts by developing a regional typology of NIPF landowners and linking it with their forestry resources and management strategies along with their climate change beliefs and understanding of forest carbon sequestration.",{"EN":160},"Typology of Nonindustrial Private Forest Landowners and Forestry Behavior: Implications for Forest Carbon Sequestration in the Southern US",{"VOID":162},"[\"4365286976074136615\"]",{"VOID":164},"Adams DM, Alig R, Latta G, White EM (2011) Regional impacts of a program for private forest carbon offset sales. J For 109(8):444–453\nArano K, Munn IA (2006) Evaluating forest management intensity: a comparison among major forest landowner types. For Pol Econ 9(3):237–248\nButler BJ (2005) The timber harvesting behavior of family forest owners. Ph.D. dissertation, Oregon State University, Corvallis\nButler BJ (2008) Family forest owners of the United States, 2006. General technical report NRS-27. US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station, Newtown Square\nButler BJ, Leatherberry EC (2006) America’s family forest owners. J For 102(7):4–14\nButler BJ, Wear DN (2013). Forest ownership dynamics of southern forests. The Southern Forest Futures Project. In: Wear DN, Greis JG (eds) USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Asheville\nButler BJ, Miles PD, Hansen MH (2015) National woodland owner survey table web-application version 1.0. www.fia.fs.fed.us\u002Fnwos. Accessed 22 Aug 2015\nButler BJ, Hewes JH, Dickinson BJ, Andrejczyk K, Butler SM, Markowski-Lindsay M (2016) Family forest ownerships of the United States, 2013: findings from the USDA forest service’s National Woodland Owner Survey. J For 114:638–647\nCoeli H, Stout S (2007) The carbon consequences of thinning techniques: Stand structure makes a difference. J For 105(5):266–270\nConway MC, Amacher GS, Sullivan J, Wear D (2003) Decision nonindustrial forest landowners make: an empirical examination. J For Econ 9(3):181–203\nDavis AR, Broussard S (2006) A typology of family forest owners in North Central Indiana. North J App For 24(4):282–289\nDhubhain AN, Cobanova R, Karppinen H, Mizaraita D, Ritter E, Slee E, Wall S (2007) The values and objectives of private forest owners and their influence on forestry behaviour: the implications for entrepreneurship. Small Scale For 6(4):347–357\nDillman DA (2000) Mail and internet surveys: the tailored design method, 2nd edn. Wiley, New York\nFinley AO, Kittredge DB (2006) Thoreau, Muir, and Jane Doe: different types of private forest owners need different kinds of forest management. North J AppFor 23(1):27–34\nGalik CS, Murray BC, Mercer DE (2013) Where is the Carbon? Carbon sequestration potential from private forest land in the Southern United States. J For 11(1):17–25\nGreene JL, Blatner KA (1986) Identifying woodland owner characteristics associated with timber management. For Sci 32(1):135–146\nHan XH, Plodinec MJ, Su Y, Monts DL, Li Z (2007) Terrestrial carbon pools in southeast and southcentral United States. Clim Change 84(2):191–202\nJohnson DE (1998) Applied multivariate methods for data analysis, 1st edn. Duxbury Press, Pacific Grove\nJoshi S, Arano KG (2009) Determinants of private forest management decisions: a study on West Virginia NIPF landowners. For Pol Econ 11(2):118–125\nJoshi O, Mehmood SR (2011) Factors affecting nonindustrial private forest landowners’ willingness to supply woody biomass for bioenergy. Biomass Bioenergy 35(1):186–192\nJoshi O, Grebner DL, Munn IA, Grado SC, Grala RK, Hussain AR (2014) Factors influencing utilization of woody biomass from wood processing facilities in Mississippi. For Prod J 64:64–71\nKendra A, Hull RB (2005) Motivations and behaviors of new forest owners in Virginia. For Sci 51(2):142–154\nKhanal PN, Grebner DL, Munn IA, Grado SC, Grala RK, Henderson JE (2016) Nonindustrial private forest landowner beliefs toward climate change and carbon sequestration in the southern United States. J For 11(4):524–531\nKline JD, Alig RJ, Johnson RL (2000) Fostering the production of nontimber services among forest owners with heterogeneous objectives. For Sci 46(2):302–311\nKluender RA, Walkingstick TL (2000) Rethinking how nonindustrial landowners view their lands. South J App For 24(3):150–158\nKuipers BT, Shivan GC, Witter KP (2013) Identifying appropriate communication means for reaching nontimber private forest landowners. J For 111(1):34–41\nKulluvainen J, Karppinen H, Ovaskainen V (1996) Landowner objectives and nonindustrial private timber supply. For Sci 42(3):301–309\nLatta G, Adams DM, Alig AJ, White E (2011) Simulated effects of mandatory versus voluntary participation in private forest carbon offset markets in the United States. J For Econ 17(2):127–141\nMajumdar I, Teeter L, Butler B (2008) Characterizing family forest owners: a cluster analysis approach. For Sci 54(2):176–184\nMalmsheimer RW, Heffernan P, Brink S, Crandall D, Deneke R, Galik C, Gee E, Helms JA, McClure N, Mortimer M, Ruddell S, Smith M, Stewart J (2008) Forest management solutions for climate change. J For 106(3):115–171\nMurray BC, Sohngen BL, Sommer AJ, Depro BM, Jones KM, McCarl BM, Gillig D, DeAngelo B, Andrasko K (2005) Greenhouse gas mitigation: potential in US forestry and agriculture. US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Atmospheric Programs. EPA-R-05-00\nNyland RD (2001) Silviculture: concepts and applications, 2nd edn. McGraw Hill, Boston\nOlenick KL, Kreuter UP, Conner JR (2005) Texas landowner perceptions regarding ecosystem services and cost-sharing land management programs. Ecol Econ 53(2):247–260\nRaunikar R, Buongiorno J (2006) Willingness to pay for forest amenities: the case of nonindustrial owners in the south central US. Ecol Econ 56(1):132–143\nSalmon O, Brunson M, Kuhns M (2006) Benefit-based audience segmentation: a tool for identifying nonindustrial private forest owner education needs. J For 104(8):419–425\nSAS Institute Inc (2008) SAS\u002FSTAT 9.2 user’s guide. SAS Institute Inc, Cary\nThompson DW, Hansen EN (2012) Factors affecting the attitudes of nonindustrial private forest landowners regarding carbon sequestration and trading. J For 110(3):129–137\nThompson DW, Hansen EN (2013) Carbon storage on nonindustrial private forestland: an application of the theory of planned behavior. Small Scale For 12(4):631–657\nUS Environmental Protection Agency (2013) Inventory of US greenhouse gas emissions and sinks: 1990–2011. US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Atmospheric Programs. EPA #430-R-13-001\nVokoun M, Amacher GS, Wear DN (2006) Scale of harvesting by non-industrial private forest landowners. J For Econ 11(4):223–244\nWear DN, Greis JN (2013) The southern forest futures project: technical report. USDA, Forest Service. GTR SRS-178. 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Khanal",{"VOID":190},"[\"16-kUhgAAAAJ\"]",{"id":192,"sortIndex":92,"researcher":20,"roles":193,"affiliations":194,"properties":203,"displayName":205,"givenName":20,"familyName":20},"acff2abc-cf8b-4d62-ad2d-12a5a726e8aa",[176],[195],{"id":196,"sortIndex":21,"affiliation":197,"properties":20},"3dd3e0cb-dc70-4d0a-a8a5-fd5af50f9e93",{"id":196,"createTime":20,"updateTime":20,"relativeEntities":198,"slug":20,"properties":199,"entityType":20,"verifyStatus":20,"verifyTime":20,"verifyNote":20,"languages":20,"translateLanguages":20,"viewCount":20,"url":20,"parentIds":202,"statistic":20},[],{"title":200},{"VI":201},"Department of Forestry, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, USA",[],{"title":204},{"VI":205},"Donald L. 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However, the practice of CCF is only used in a relatively small area in the world, and its development potential is unclear. We studied the potential of forest owners practising CCF to act as niche experimenters to provide clear-cutting-oriented Estonian forestry with experience for the development of CCF for specific needs. We adopt a multi-level perspective of socio-technical transitions, which proposes that forest owners’ silvicultural choices develop and are stabilised in a complex, change-resistant and cross-sectoral framework that is formed by actors’ networks, material artefacts and rules. The spread of the alternative silvicultural approach depends on the susceptibility of this framework, but also on owners’ ability to form experimental niches: protected “incubation rooms” of change. To explore that potential, we visited eighteen forests and interviewed their owners to study their experiences in the enhancement of CCF. Our qualitative analysis demonstrates that the wider adoption of CCF is hindered due to several lock-in mechanisms in Estonian forestry but supported by related sectors. Some owners can apply CCF even within the present forestry framework due to their particular social embedding. However, it is unlikely that forest owners will start using CCF unless the forestry framework changes. We propose an analytical tool to enforce experimental CCF niche formation among the forest owners, as the necessity to apply CCF in the nearest future may increase.",{"EN":329},"Continuous Cover Forestry Practitioners in a Clear-cutting-oriented System: Assessing the Potential to Foster the Practice",{"VOID":331},"[\"1765768202353786532\"]",{"VOID":333},"Adermann V (ed) (2012) Eesti metsad 2010. Estonian Environment Information Centre 159 pp. [Estonian forests 2010; in Estonian]\nAitsam V (ed) 2012 Metsaomaniku käsiraamat. Erametsakeskus, 288 pp.[Handbook for a forest owner; in Estonian]\nAlvela A (2019) Harvester—kellele looduse hävitaja, kellele arengutee sillutaja. Eesti Mets 1:22–28. [Harvester—some see it as a destroyer of the nature, others see it paving the way to development; in Estonian]\nAxelsson R, Angelstam P (2011) Uneven-aged forest management in boreal Sweden: local forestry stakeholders’ perceptions of different sustainability dimensions. Forestry 84:567–579. https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1093\u002Fforestry\u002Fcpr034\nBlanco V, Brown C, Rounsevell M (2015) Characterising forest owners through their objectives, attributes and management strategies. Eur J Forest Res 134:1027–1041. https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1007\u002Fs10342-015-0907-x\nDaniel O (1936) Talumetsade korralduse võimalusi. Konjunktuur 17:246–249. 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Theory Cult Soc 31:21–40. https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1177%2F0263276414531627\nGeels FW, Sovacool BK, Schwanen T, Sorrell S (2017) Sociotechnical transitions for deep decarbonization. Science 357:1242–1244. https:\u002F\u002Fscience.sciencemag.org\u002Fcontent\u002F357\u002F6357\u002F1242\nGeels FW (2020) Micro-foundations of the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions: Developing a multi-dimensional model of agency through crossovers between social constructivism, evolutionary economics and neoinstitutional theory. Technol Forecast Soc 152:119894. https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1016\u002Fj.techfore.2019.119894\nGiessen L (2013) Reviewing the main characteristics of the international forest regime complex and partial explanations for its fragmentation. 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Forestry 91:589–602. https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1093\u002Fforestry\u002Fcpy018\nJuutinen A, Tolvanen A, Koskela T (2020) Forest owners’ future intentions for forest management. Forest Policy Econ 118:102220. https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1016\u002Fj.forpol.2020.102220\nKiisel M, Kasemets M, Hõrak H (2018) Sihtrühmade ootused metsanduse arengukavale. Tartu Ülikooli Sotsiaalteaduslike Rakendusuuringute Keskus. pp. [The target groups’ expectations to Forestry Development Plan; in Estonian], p 54\nKim S, Axelsson EP, Girona MM, Senior JK (2021) Continuous-cover forestry maintains soil fungal communities in Norway spruce dominated boreal forests. Forest Ecol Manag 480:118659. https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1016\u002Fj.foreco.2020.118659\nKleinschmit D, Pülzl H, Secco L, Sergent A, Wallin I (2018) Orchestration in political processes: Involvement of experts, citizens, and participatory professionals in forest policy making. Forest Policy Econ 89:4–15. https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1016\u002Fj.forpol.2017.12.011\nKosenkranius T (2016) Usewoodi minimetsamasinad. Sinu Mets 44:6–7. [Usewood small forestry machines; in Estonian]\nKuuluvainen T, Gauthier S (2018) Young and old forest in the boreal: critical stages of ecosystem dynamics and management under global change. For Ecosyst 5:26. https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1186\u002Fs40663-018-0142-2\nLaas E, Uri V, Valgepea M (eds) (2011) Metsamajanduse alused. Õpik kõrgkoolidele. Tartu Ülikooli Kirjastus 862 pp. [Basics in forestry. Textbook for universities and colleges; in Estonian]\nLaik J (2018) Turismiettevõtjat teevad murelikuks turistide küsimused Eesti metsa kohta. 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Environ Res Lett 15:104075. https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1088\u002F1748-9326\u002Fabb396\nViiron K (2020) Erakordne kevad loodusradadel. Metsamees 139:16–19. [Emergency situation on nature trails; in Estonian]\nVihma P, Toikka A (2021) The limits of Collaborative Governance: The role of inter-group learning and trust in the case of the Estonian “Forest War”. Environ Policy Gov 31:403–416. https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1002\u002Feet.1952\nWeber N (2018) Participation or involvement? Development of forest strategies on national and sub-national level in Germany. Forest Policy Econ 89:98–106. https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1016\u002Fj.forpol.2017.04.002\nWeiss G, Ludvig A, Zivojinovic I, Asamer-Handler M, Huber P (2017) Non-timber innovations: How to innovate in side-activities of forestry—Case study Styria, Austria. Austria J of For Sci 134:231–250",{"VOID":335},"10.1007\u002Fs11842-022-09501-3","2024-05-13T00:45:04.756+00:00","https:\u002F\u002Flink.springer.com\u002Farticle\u002F10.1007\u002Fs11842-022-09501-3",[339,354],{"id":340,"sortIndex":21,"researcher":20,"roles":341,"affiliations":342,"properties":351,"displayName":353,"givenName":20,"familyName":20},"86695966-1d86-4209-9af9-68582443a2fd",[176],[343],{"id":344,"sortIndex":21,"affiliation":345,"properties":20},"59bdd8b1-b55f-44a2-a5a7-4ff63224d78e",{"id":344,"createTime":20,"updateTime":20,"relativeEntities":346,"slug":20,"properties":347,"entityType":20,"verifyStatus":20,"verifyTime":20,"verifyNote":20,"languages":20,"translateLanguages":20,"viewCount":20,"url":20,"parentIds":350,"statistic":20},[],{"title":348},{"VI":349},"Johan Skytte Institute of Political Studies, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia",[],{"title":352},{"VI":353},"Maie Kiisel",{"id":355,"sortIndex":92,"researcher":20,"roles":356,"affiliations":357,"properties":366,"displayName":368,"givenName":20,"familyName":20},"82fe3109-d504-49d2-94c2-cb7bfca2e7a7",[176],[358],{"id":359,"sortIndex":21,"affiliation":360,"properties":20},"5aa56911-a788-4c30-8aaf-c9357b3d02cd",{"id":359,"createTime":20,"updateTime":20,"relativeEntities":361,"slug":20,"properties":362,"entityType":20,"verifyStatus":20,"verifyTime":20,"verifyNote":20,"languages":20,"translateLanguages":20,"viewCount":20,"url":20,"parentIds":365,"statistic":20},[],{"title":363},{"VI":364},"Department of Zoology, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia",[],{"title":367,"gsAuthor":369},{"VI":368},"Liina 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of illegal logging, increased population pressure and intensified shifting cultivation, forest coverage of the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) has decreased drastically resulting in land degradation. Many development projects have been implemented to combat forest loss and land degradation and also to improve the livelihoods of the hill people. This paper reports an empirical study of the Upland Settlement Project (USP) of Bangladesh which was undertaken to prevent land degradation and enhance the standard of living of the people. Planters were found to have given up shifting cultivation and adopted soil conserving agroforestry practices, and forest coverage has been increased in the project village. Interacting with project staff members, government officials and NGOs assisted planters in diversifying livelihood strategies thereby reducing dependency on project resources. Rich planters, utilizing their own capacity, expanded their income sources successfully. Poor planters still remain wage labourers because they do not have sufficient finance and networks to invest in productive ventures. Planters’ participation in project activities and the information flow between them and project staff were found to be minimal. Suggestions are made for the continuity of project functions, which involve greater participation of planters in rubber management functions, improved information flow, resolution of land tenure and greater equality in distribution of rubber revenue.",{"EN":435},"The Upland Settlement Project of Bangladesh as a Means of Reducing Land Degradation and Improving Rural Livelihoods",{"VOID":437},"[\"272381432497259017\"]",{"EN":439},"",{"VOID":441},"ADB (Asian Development Bank) (2005) Project completion report PCR: BAN 25311. Coastal Greenbelt Project (Loan 1353-BAN [SF]) in the People’s Republic of Bangladesh. Available at www.adb.org\u002FDocuments\u002FPCRs\u002FBAN\u002Fpcr-ban-25311.pdf. Cited 12 January 2008\nADB (Asian Development Bank) (2007) Project completion report. Forestry Sector Project (Project # 26623), Bangladesh. www.adb.org\u002FDocuments\u002FPCRs\u002FBAN\u002F26623-BAN-PCR.pdf. Cited 12 January 2008\nBrocklesby MA, Fisher E (2003) Community development in sustainable livelihood approaches: an introduction. Community Dev J 38(3):185–198\nCairns M, Garrity DP (1999) Improving shifting cultivation in Southeast Asia by building on indigenous fallow management strategies. Agroforest Syst 47(1–3):7–48\nChakma S (2005) Bandarban branch project manager, in charge of the USP (Second phase). Interviewed on 27 August 2005 at the CHTDB, Bandarban, Bangladesh\nChittagong Hill Tracts Development Board (2001) Ministry of Chittagong Hill tracts affairs project proforma (revised) of upland settlement project (2nd phase). Chittagong Hill Tracts, Rangamati\nCHTDB (Chittagong Hill Tracts Development Board) (2005) Posters observed at CHTDB office. Bandarban, Bangladesh\nClermont-Dauphin C, Cabidoche Y-M, Meynardb J-M (2005) Diagnosis on the sustainability of an upland cropping system of southern Haiti. Agric Ecosyst Environ 105(1–2):221–234\nCramb RA, Purcell T, Ho TCS (2004) Participatory assessment of rural livelihoods in the central highlands of Vietnam. Agric Syst 81(3):255–272\nDFID (Department for International Development) (2001) Sustainable livelihoods guidance sheets – comparing development approaches. DFID, London\nGrandin B (1988) Wealth ranking in smallholder communities: a field manual. Intermediate Technology Publications, London\nKhan NA, Khisa SK (2000) Sustainable land management with rubber-based agroforestry: a Bangladeshi example of uplands community development. Sustain Dev 8(1):1–10\nKhan NA, Emran AM, Mamun CMAA (2003) A holistic approach towards participatory forestry as a means of poverty reduction and upland development in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh. J Forest Econ 49(3):1–10\nMukherjee N (1998) Participatory rural appraisal: methodology and applications, SIRUP 1 (reprinted 1998). Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi\nNath TK, Inoue M, Chakma S (2005) Shifting cultivation (jhum) in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh: examining its sustainability, rural livelihood and policy implications. Int J Agric Sustain 3(2):130–142\nNgugi RK, Nyariki DM (2005) Rural livelihoods in the arid and semi-arid environments of Kenya: sustainable alternatives and challenges. Agric Hum Values 22(1):65–71\nProkopy LS (2005) The relationship between participation and project outcomes: evidence from rural water supply projects in India. World Dev 33(11):1801–1819\nQuddus AHG, Ali SI, Bhuiyan AHA, Hossain M (1992) Greening the hills: the Betagi-Pomora agroforestry experience. BARC-Winrock International, Dhaka\nReddy VR, Reddy MG, Galab S, Soussan J, Springate-Baginski O (2004) Participatory watershed development in India: can it sustain rural livelihoods? Dev Change 35(2):297–326\nSafa MS (2004), Effect of participatory forest management on livelihood and poverty of the settlers in a rehabilitation program of degraded forest in Bangladesh. Small-scale Forest Econ Manage Policy 3(2):223–238\nSafa MS (2006) The role of NGOs in improving social forestry practice: do they promote livelihood, sustainability and optimum land use in Bangladesh? Small-scale Forest 5(2):207–229\nSaha N, Azam MA (2004) The indigenous hill-farming system of Khasia tribes in Moulvibazar district of Bangladesh: status and impacts. Small-scale Forest Econ Manage Policy 3(2):273–281\nSaha N, Azam MA (2005) Betel leaf based forest farming by Khasia tribes: a sustainable system of forest management in Moulvibazar district, Bangladesh. Forest Tree Livelihoods 15(3):275–290\nScherr SJ, White A, Kaimowitz D (2004) A new agenda for forest conservation and poverty reduction: making forest markets work for low-income producers. Forest Trends, CIFOR, Washington DC\nScoones I (1998) Sustainable rural livelihoods: a framework for analysis. IDS Working Paper 72. IDS, London\nSoini E (2005) Changing livelihoods on the slopes of Mt Kilimanjaro, Tanzania: challenges and opportunities in the Chagga homegarden system. Agroforest Syst 64(2):157–167\nToledo VM, Ortiz-Espejel B, Cortes L, Moguel P, Ordonez MDJ (2003) The multiple use of tropical forests by indigenous peoples in Mexico: a case of adaptive management. Conserv Ecol 7(3):9. Available at www.consecol.org\u002Fvol7\u002Fiss3\u002Fart9. Cited 15 September 2004\nYin RK (2003) Case study research design and methods. Applied social research methods series, vol 5. SAGE Publications, Thousand Oaks\nZashimuddin M (2004) Community forestry for poverty reduction in Bangladesh. In: Sim HC, Appanah S, Lu WM (eds) Proceedings of the workshop forests for poverty reduction: can community forestry make money? RAP Publication 2004\u002F04, FAO, Bangkok. Available at http:\u002F\u002Fwww.fao.org\u002Fdocrep\u002F007\u002Fad511e\u002Fad511e00.htm#Contents. Cited 10 January 2008",{"VOID":443},"10.1007\u002Fs11842-008-9048-0","2024-06-26T09:05:06.786+00:00","https:\u002F\u002Flink.springer.com\u002Farticle\u002F10.1007\u002Fs11842-008-9048-0",[447,464],{"id":448,"sortIndex":21,"researcher":20,"roles":449,"affiliations":450,"properties":459,"displayName":461,"givenName":20,"familyName":20},"2fcf2f2b-8ef3-4767-841b-7f8da0b8dbe3",[176],[451],{"id":452,"sortIndex":21,"affiliation":453,"properties":20},"7db1632e-6694-4ce2-88c2-08ec06d34499",{"id":452,"createTime":20,"updateTime":20,"relativeEntities":454,"slug":20,"properties":455,"entityType":20,"verifyStatus":20,"verifyTime":20,"verifyNote":20,"languages":20,"translateLanguages":20,"viewCount":20,"url":20,"parentIds":458,"statistic":20},[],{"title":456},{"VI":457},"Institute of Forestry and Environmental Sciences, The University of Chittagong, Chittagong, Bangladesh",[],{"title":460,"gsAuthor":462},{"VI":461},"Tapan Kumar 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evaluation of conservation practices has become increasingly important to many environmental scientists, land managers, and policymakers due to rising concerns regarding the continued provision of ecosystem services. As part of efforts to identify forests in need of special protection under Forest Stewardship Council principle 9, the High Conservation Value Forest (HCVF) toolkit was designed and published in 2003 and has been applied to forestlands globally. Through a meta-analysis of research papers and technical reports, the present study explores the application of the toolkit in conservation efforts from 2003 to 2021. We analyzed 108 documents to extract information on measures and methods used through toolkit application, core conservation values considered, outcomes of the toolkit application in different geographic regions, challenges addressed, and possible solutions. Among six categories of HCVs identified using the toolkit, those related to biodiversity conservation were the most frequently mentioned. However, recent studies have also emphasized the importance of conserving forestlands offering a wide range of ecosystem services as well as forests with critical cultural values. Our analysis showed that the HCVF toolkit is a useful tool in identifying and prioritizing forestlands with high conservation values and that it has been used in contexts outside of its original intended purpose in support of forest certification processes. Yet there are challenges and limitations in using the toolkit in different countries with varied conservation regulations and socio-economic conditions that may require improvements in future updates of the toolkit.",{"EN":538},"Testing the Applicability and Credibility of the High Conservation Value Forest (HCVF) Toolkit: A Systematic Global Review",{"VOID":540},"[\"17699851045849910752\"]",{"VOID":542},"10.1007\u002Fs11842-022-09510-2","2024-05-04T22:19:00.786+00:00","https:\u002F\u002Flink.springer.com\u002F10.1007\u002Fs11842-022-09510-2",[546,563],{"id":547,"sortIndex":21,"researcher":20,"roles":548,"affiliations":549,"properties":558,"displayName":560,"givenName":20,"familyName":20},"832529c7-832a-4f06-a285-a1a388541c00",[176],[550],{"id":551,"sortIndex":21,"affiliation":552,"properties":20},"310e6314-4765-4cfe-8714-d562a027726b",{"id":551,"createTime":20,"updateTime":20,"relativeEntities":553,"slug":20,"properties":554,"entityType":20,"verifyStatus":20,"verifyTime":20,"verifyNote":20,"languages":20,"translateLanguages":20,"viewCount":20,"url":20,"parentIds":557,"statistic":20},[],{"title":555},{"EN":556},"Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, USA",[],{"title":559,"gsAuthor":561},{"VI":560},"Behnoosh Abbasnezhad",{"VOID":562},"[\"8mQIrRMAAAAJ\"]",{"id":564,"sortIndex":92,"researcher":20,"roles":565,"affiliations":566,"properties":581,"displayName":583,"givenName":20,"familyName":20},"c3b62275-95d4-4156-be49-fc0e4c2e6426",[176],[567,573],{"id":551,"sortIndex":21,"affiliation":568,"properties":20},{"id":551,"createTime":20,"updateTime":20,"relativeEntities":569,"slug":20,"properties":570,"entityType":20,"verifyStatus":20,"verifyTime":20,"verifyNote":20,"languages":20,"translateLanguages":20,"viewCount":20,"url":20,"parentIds":572,"statistic":20},[],{"title":571},{"EN":556},[],{"id":574,"sortIndex":92,"affiliation":575,"properties":20},"1d5707a5-0209-485d-a79a-4f67b7ae295b",{"id":574,"createTime":20,"updateTime":20,"relativeEntities":576,"slug":20,"properties":577,"entityType":20,"verifyStatus":20,"verifyTime":20,"verifyNote":20,"languages":20,"translateLanguages":20,"viewCount":20,"url":20,"parentIds":580,"statistic":20},[],{"title":578},{"VI":579},"Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, University of Georgia, Athens, USA",[],{"title":582,"gsAuthor":584},{"VI":583},"Jesse B. 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Swedish family forest owners (FFOs) are expected to both manage and conserve their forests for the benefit of the whole country, but there are contradictions between development and conservation and between traditional and alternative forms of utilization representing dilemmas in rural areas. Tensions between urban and rural areas, between demands on what to produce and protect, are often linked to the FFOs’ views on opportunities for forest management. The aim of this study is to identify and analyse the extent to which FFOs perceive that social values have the ability to generate “new” goods and services as a supplement or alternative to traditional forestry, and to suggest how the forests might be managed to render high social values. Fifty-seven interviews were conducted with FFOs (both resident and non-resident). 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Trans Br Geogr 35(3):364–381",{"VOID":972},"10.1007\u002Fs11842-017-9379-9","https:\u002F\u002Flink.springer.com\u002Farticle\u002F10.1007\u002Fs11842-017-9379-9",[975,990],{"id":976,"sortIndex":21,"researcher":20,"roles":977,"affiliations":978,"properties":987,"displayName":989,"givenName":20,"familyName":20},"0dbb0120-9146-4328-96f3-055b3ce7935e",[176],[979],{"id":980,"sortIndex":21,"affiliation":981,"properties":20},"005d3953-094a-43f1-b171-8f4f393cfbbd",{"id":980,"createTime":20,"updateTime":20,"relativeEntities":982,"slug":20,"properties":983,"entityType":20,"verifyStatus":20,"verifyTime":20,"verifyNote":20,"languages":20,"translateLanguages":20,"viewCount":20,"url":20,"parentIds":986,"statistic":20},[],{"title":984},{"VI":985},"Department of Political Science, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden",[],{"title":988},{"VI":989},"Therese Bjärstig",{"id":991,"sortIndex":92,"researcher":20,"roles":992,"affiliations":993,"properties":1002,"displayName":1004,"givenName":20,"familyName":20},"f0726fc9-1bf3-4226-81eb-f8fa50c4d291",[176],[994],{"id":995,"sortIndex":21,"affiliation":996,"properties":20},"3baa77ce-ee00-4763-8c8d-bb62c7792be0",{"id":995,"createTime":20,"updateTime":20,"relativeEntities":997,"slug":20,"properties":998,"entityType":20,"verifyStatus":20,"verifyTime":20,"verifyNote":20,"languages":20,"translateLanguages":20,"viewCount":20,"url":20,"parentIds":1001,"statistic":20},[],{"title":999},{"VI":1000},"Department of Historical, Philosophical and Religious Studies, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden",[],{"title":1003},{"VI":1004},"Anna 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systems are well-suited to smallholder and community forestry, but reliable evidence regarding and procedures to assess species performance in such systems is scarce. This field trial uses a pair of clinal plots with varying spacing and species composition to gain insights into competition between four species proposed for landscape rehabilitation in the Philippines. We examine the efficiency of this compact clinal trial in revealing growth traits of four species (Paraserianthes falcataria, Pterocarpus indicus, Shorea palosapis, Swietenia macrophylla) in mixed plantings. The use of a size-distance competition index allowed an assessment of the competitive and collaborative influences between four tree species. Within the expected general trend for diameter increment to decline with increasing competition, there were indications that Shorea palosapis is a benign competitor that may stimulate the growth of neighbouring individuals. Paraserianthes falcataria is a strong competitor that is also strongly impacted by competition, especially through antagonistic intraspecific competition. Paraserianthes falcataria appears well suited as a solitary tree in a field or village, whereas Shorea palosapis seems ideal for plantations, in both monoculture and mixed plantings. The clinal spacing and mixture trial, when examined using a size-distance competition index based on diameter increment, revealed useful insights into species performance. Pterocarpus indicus exhibits strong intraspecific, but low inter-specific competition, so appears well-suited for polyculture plantings. Of the four species trialled, Swietenia macrophylla appears to be best-suited as a monoculture species as it exhibits the lowest intraspecific competition.",{"EN":1065},"Competition in a Mixed-Species Planting with Four Contrasting Tree Species",{"VOID":1067},"Assmann E (1961) Waldertragskunde. BLV, Munich.\nBecker RA, Cleveland WS (1987) Brushing scatterplots. Technometrics 29(2):127–142\nBotkin DB, Janak JF, Wallis JR (1972) Some ecological consequences of a computer model of forest growth. 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For Ecol Manage 71:177–186. https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1016\u002F0378-1127(94)06097-3\nVanclay JK, Lamb D, Erskine P, Cameron DM (2013) Spatially-explicit competition in a mixed planting of Araucaria cunninghamii and Flindersia brayleyana. Ann for Sci 70:611–619. https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1007\u002Fs13595-013-0304-x\nVanclay JK (1991) Data requirements for developing growth models for tropical moist forests. Common For Rev 70:248–271. https:\u002F\u002Fwww.jstor.org\u002Fstable\u002F42606811\nVanclay JK (1994) Modelling forest growth and yield: applications to mixed tropical forests. CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 312 p. ISBN: 0-85198-913-6\nVeridiano RK, Schroder JM, Come R, Baldos A, Gunter S (2020) Towards forest landscape restoration programs in the Philippines: Evidence from logged forests and mixed-species plantations. Environments 7(3):20. https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.3390\u002Fenvironments7030020\nVon Bertalanffy L (1949) Problems of organic growth. Nature 163(4135):156–158\nWhitmore TC (1998) An Introduction to Tropical Rain Forests. Oxford University Press, Oxford\nZeide B (1993) Analysis of growth equations. Forest Science 39(3):594–616",{"VOID":1069},"10.1007\u002Fs11842-022-09532-w","2025-02-26T22:45:18.793+00:00","https:\u002F\u002Flink.springer.com\u002Farticle\u002F10.1007\u002Fs11842-022-09532-w",[1073,1097,1110],{"id":1074,"sortIndex":21,"researcher":20,"roles":1075,"affiliations":1076,"properties":1094,"displayName":1096,"givenName":20,"familyName":20},"cc5c935b-52ce-40d5-bdde-d6071a6f6ac2",[176],[1077,1085],{"id":1078,"sortIndex":21,"affiliation":1079,"properties":20},"4c0fc8a4-e60f-4390-a92f-71da6dd52e57",{"id":1078,"createTime":20,"updateTime":20,"relativeEntities":1080,"slug":20,"properties":1081,"entityType":20,"verifyStatus":20,"verifyTime":20,"verifyNote":20,"languages":20,"translateLanguages":20,"viewCount":20,"url":20,"parentIds":1084,"statistic":20},[],{"title":1082},{"EN":1083},"Southern Cross University, Lismore, Australia",[],{"id":1086,"sortIndex":92,"affiliation":1087,"properties":1093},"edbb2e06-1bfe-4465-8329-57ab3de65253",{"id":1086,"createTime":20,"updateTime":20,"relativeEntities":1088,"slug":20,"properties":1089,"entityType":20,"verifyStatus":20,"verifyTime":20,"verifyNote":20,"languages":20,"translateLanguages":20,"viewCount":20,"url":20,"parentIds":1092,"statistic":20},[],{"title":1090},{"VI":1091},"University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Australia",[],{},{"title":1095},{"VI":1096},"Jerome K. 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It is fundamental for forest certification to maintain the economic benefits for certified local sellers and balance conservation goals with increasing local incomes. This study explores how FSC certification of a community-based forest enterprise in Southeast Sulawesi in Indonesia could improve effectively field situations of community forest management and strengthen local peoples’ financial benefits and social perceptions towards conserving forests. FSC group certification was introduced in the area of teak community forest of several villages in 2005. Because of local strong interest in group certification, the size of certified forests, the number of group certification members and the amount of certified wood harvested gradually increased. The support of a local NGO and an international NGO contributed towards successful establishment of group certification and establishment of a small-scale forestry enterprise producing certified wood in a sustainable manner. These NGOs played important roles in establishing strong relationships between producers and consumers, strengthening local forest management institutions, and promising social and economic benefits to the local people.",{"EN":1183},"Certification of a Community-based Forest Enterprise for Improving Institutional Management and Household Income: A Case from Southeast Sulawesi, Indonesia",{"VOID":1185},"Barr R (2007) The role of small and medium forest enterprise associations in reducing poverty. In: A cut for the poor: proceedings of the international conference on managing forests for poverty reduction: capturing opportunities in forest harvesting and wood processing for the benefit of the poor. Ho Chi Minh City, pp 204–215\nBass S, Thornber K, Markopoulos M, Robert S, Grieg-Gran M (2001) Certification’s impacts on forests, stakeholders and supply chains. International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED), London\nBennett C (1999) Outcome-based policies for sustainable logging in community forests: reducing forest bureaucracy. In: Wollengberg E, Ingles A (eds) Incomes from the forest: methods for the development and conservation of forest products for local communities. Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Bogor, pp 203–220\nBPS (2008) Kabupaten Konawe Selatan dalam angka tahun. Annual statistic data in South Konawe district, Kendari\nButterfield R, Hansen E, Fletcher R, Nikinmae H (2005) Forest certification and small forest enterprises: key trends and impacts-benefits and barriers. Forest Trends and Rainforest Alliance, Washington\nCampbell JY (2002) Differing perspectives on community forestry in Indonesia. In: Colfer CJP, Resosudarmo IAP (eds) Which way forward? People, forests, and policymaking in Indonesia. Resources for the Future, Washington, pp 110–125\nDe Pourcq K, Thomas E, Damme PV (2009) Indigenous community-based forestry in the Bolivian lowlands: some basic challenges for certification. Int For Rev 11(1):12–26\nDinas Kehutanan Propinsi Sulawesi Tenggara (2005a) Rencana induk pengembangan kelembagaan pengelolaan hutan Eks, HTI. Development of forest management organization of HTI, Kendari\nDinas Kehutanan Propinsi Sulawesi Tenggara (2005b) Rencana unit pengelolaan manajemen plan PHTUL: Rencana pengelolaan social forestry Kabupaten Konawe Selatan. Management plan of PHTUL management unit: social forestry management plan in South Konawe, Kendari\nDjamhuri TL (2008) Community participation in a social forestry program in Central Java, Indonesia: the effect of incentive structure and social capital. Agrofor Syst 74(1):83–96\nEba’a Atyi R, Simula M (2002) Forest certification: pending challenges for tropical timber. ITTO Technical Series No. 19. International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO), Yokohama\nFSC (2011) Global FSC certificates: type and distribution. http:\u002F\u002Fwww.fsc.org\u002Ffileadmin\u002Fweb-data\u002Fpublic\u002Fdocument_center\u002Fpowerpoints_graphs\u002Ffacts_figures\u002FGlobal-FSC-Certificates-2010-05-15-EN.pdf. Accessed 12 Aug 2012\nFujiwara T, Awang SA, Widayanti WT, Septiana RM, Bariatul H, Rahmat M, Suyanto A, Sato N (2011) Overcoming vulnerability of privately owned small-scale forest through collective management unit establishment: a case study of Gunung Kidul District, Yogyakarta in Indonesia. Int J Soc For 4(2):95–120\nHarada K, Rohman, Oktalina SN, Wiyono (2012) Exploring potentials of forest certification for community-based forest management in Indonesia. J For Econ 58(1):58–67\nHumphries SS, Kainer KA (2006) Local perceptions of forest certification for community-based enterprises. For Ecol Manag 235(1):30–43\nJAUH (2006) Laporan perkembangan program social forestry di Konawe Selatan, Sulawesi Tenggara. Report of social forestry program development in South Konawe, Southeast Sulawesi, Kendari\nKarmann M, Cox C, Smith A (2009) Challenges faced by small scale community operations in the South and the potential contribution of forest management and Fairtrade certification to meeting these challenges. XII World Forestry Congress, Buenos Aires, pp 1–7\nKHJL (2005) Laporan pertanggungjawaban pengurus KHJL tahun buku. Annual report of KHJL’s management responsibilities, Kendari\nKHJL (2006) Laporan pertanggungjawaban pengurus KHJL tahun buku. Annual report of KHJL’s management responsibilities, Kendari\nKHJL (2007) Laporan pengurus KHJL tahun buku. Annual report of KHJL’s management, Kendari\nKHJL (2008a) Data keangotaan KHJL Per 6 Mei. KHJL members’ data 6 May, Kendari\nKHJL (2008b) Data penjualan kayu KHJL. KHJL’s woodelling data, Kendari\nMacqueen D (2008) Distinguishing community forest products in the market: industrial demand for a mechanism that brings together forest certification and fair trade. IIED, London\nMalla YB, Neupane HR, Branney PJ (2003) Why aren’t poor people benefiting more from community forestry? J For Livelihood 3(1):78–93\nMarkopoulos M (2003) The role of certification in community-based forest enterprise. In: Meidinger E, Elliott C, Oesten G (eds) Social and political dimensions of forest certification. Forstbuch, Ramagen-Oberwinter, pp 105–130. http:\u002F\u002Fwww.guptabooks.com\u002Fl_elliot.pdf#search=‘Social+and+political+dimensions+of+forest+certification’. Accessed 12 Aug 2012\nMaryudi A (2009) Forest certification for community-based forest management in Indonesia: does LEI provide a credible option? IGES Occasional Paper No. 3. Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES), Hayama\nMaryudi A, Devkota RR, Schusser C, Yufanyi C, Salla M, Aurenhammer H, Rotchanaphatharawit R, Krott M (2012) Back to basic: considerations in evaluating the outcomes of community forestry. For Policy Econ 14(1):1–5\nMcDaniel J (2003) Community-based forestry and timber certification in Southeast Bolivia. Small Scale For Econ Manag Policy 2(3):327–341\nMcDermott MH, Schreckenberg K (2009) Equity in community forestry: insights from North and South. Int For Rev 11(2):157–170\nMolnar A (2003) Forest certification and communities: looking forward to the next decade. For Trends, Washington\nMolnar A, Liddle M, Brace C, Khare A, White A, Bull J (2007) Community-based forest enterprises in tropical forest countries: status and potential. In: Community forest management and enterprises: global issues and opportunities, a conference in Rio Branco, Acre, 16–20 July. ITTO, RRI and Forest Trends. http:\u002F\u002Fwww.itto.int\u002Fworkshop_detail\u002Fid=31910000. Accessed 12 Aug 2012\nMuhtaman DR (2006) Forest certification in Indonesia. In: Cashore B, Gale F, Meidinger E, Newsom D (eds) Confronting sustainability: forest certification in developing and transitioning countries. Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, New Haven, pp 33–68\nNawir AA (2007) Portraits of rehabilitation projects in Indonesia. In: Nawir AA, Murniati, Rumboko L (eds) Forest rehabilitation in Indonesia: where to after more than three decades?. CIFOR, Bogor, pp 113–175\nNussbaum R, Simula M (2005) The forest certification handbook. Earthscan, London\nPangdee A, Kim Y, Daughherty PJ (2006) What makes community forest management successful: a meta-study from community forests throughout the world. Soc Nat Resour 19(1):33–52\nProgramme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) (2012) Press Briefing-June 2012. http:\u002F\u002Fwww.pefc.org\u002Fimages\u002Fstories\u002Fdocuments\u002FBrochures\u002FPEFC_Profile_2012.pdf. Accessed 6 Feb 2013\nScheyvens H, Harada K, Hyakumura K (2007) Incorporating certification into a pro-poor forestry agenda: lessons from, and options for, the Asia-Pacific region. Paper presented at the International Conference on Poverty Reduction and Forests-Tenure, Market and Policy Reforms, September 2007. Bangkok, pp 3–7\nSunderlin WD (2006) Poverty alleviation through community forestry in Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam: an assessment of the potential. For Policy Econ 8(4):386–396\nTakahashi S (2008) Challenges for local communities and livelihoods to seek sustainable forest management in Indonesia. J Environ Dev 17(2):192–211\nTaylor PL (2005) A fair trade approach to community forest certification? A framework for discussion. J Rural Stud 21(4):433–447\nThoms CA (2006) Conservation success, livelihoods failure? Community forestry in Nepal. Policy Matters 14:169–179\nThornber K, Markopoulos M (2000) Certification: its impacts and prospects for community forests, stakeholders and markets. IIED, London\nTikina A, Innes JL, Trosper RL, Larson BC (2010) Aboriginal peoples and forest certification: a review of the Canadian situation. Ecol Soc 15(3):33. http:\u002F\u002Fwww.ecologyandsociety.org\u002Fvol15\u002Fiss3\u002Fart33\u002F\nVallejo N (2003) Certification of community forest management. In: Meidinger C, Elliott C, Oesten G (eds) Social and political dimensions of forest certification. Forstbuch, Remagen-Oberwinter, pp 133–151. http:\u002F\u002Fwww.guptabooks.com\u002Fl_elliot.pdf#search=‘Social+and+political+dimensions+of+forest+certification’. Accessed 12 Aug 2012\nWALHI, AMAN, the Rainforest Foundation (2003) The application of FSC Principle No. 2 and No. 3 in Indonesia: obstacles and possibilities. http:\u002F\u002Fwww.forestpeoples.org\u002Fsites\u002Ffpp\u002Ffiles\u002Fpublication\u002F2010\u002F08\u002Findonesiaobstaclesandpossibilities03eng.pdf. Accessed 12 Aug 2012\nWollenberg E (1999) Methods for assessing the conservation and development of forest products: what we know and what we have yet to learn. In: Wollenberg E, Ingles A (eds) Income from the forest: methods for the development and conservation of forest products for local communities. CIFOR, Bogor",{"VOID":1187},"10.1007\u002Fs11842-013-9240-8","https:\u002F\u002Flink.springer.com\u002Farticle\u002F10.1007\u002Fs11842-013-9240-8",[1190,1205],{"id":1191,"sortIndex":21,"researcher":20,"roles":1192,"affiliations":1193,"properties":1202,"displayName":1204,"givenName":20,"familyName":20},"ad324234-41b7-4d9d-a7af-699b7484748e",[176],[1194],{"id":1195,"sortIndex":21,"affiliation":1196,"properties":20},"25d19120-99a9-42ce-8fc3-5394fbff3aea",{"id":1195,"createTime":20,"updateTime":20,"relativeEntities":1197,"slug":20,"properties":1198,"entityType":20,"verifyStatus":20,"verifyTime":20,"verifyNote":20,"languages":20,"translateLanguages":20,"viewCount":20,"url":20,"parentIds":1201,"statistic":20},[],{"title":1199},{"VI":1200},"School of Human Science and Environment, University of Hyogo, Himeji, Japan",[],{"title":1203},{"VI":1204},"Kazuhiro 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forest management is believed to hold potential for increased economic and social equity. Implications of the associated local forest law enforcement on livelihoods, however, are not well understood. This paper explores the impacts of local forest law enforcement with a focus on the poorest forest users in community-managed forests. A case study including 14 community forest groups in western Nepal was conducted in 2008. Methods included review of archival data, a stakeholder survey (n = 211), and recall of forest crimes by a random household sample (n = 252). Local forest law enforcement was found to detect far more crimes than district-level enforcement. Crimes are primarily small-scale unauthorised appropriation of products for subsistence use by poorer households and rules are lightly enforced. It is argued that local law enforcement, while apparently not economically harmful to the poorer in the short term, may be used to perpetuate existing wealth and cast-based social inequities.",{"EN":1281},"Law Enforcement in Community Forestry: Consequences for the Poor",{"VOID":1283},"Abbott JIO, Maze R (1999) Managing protected woodlands: fuelwood collection and law enforcement in Lake Malawi National Park. Conserv Biol 13(2):418–421\nAgarwal B (2009) Rule making in community forestry institutions: the difference women make. Ecol Econ 68(8–9):2296–2308\nAgarwal B (2010) Does women’s proportional strength affect their participation? Governing local forests in South Asia. World Dev 38(1):98–112\nAgrawal A (2001) The regulatory community: decentralization and the environment in the Van Panchayats (forest councils) of Kumaon, India. Mt Res Dev 21(3):208–211\nAhmed MR, Laarman JG (2000) Gender equity in social forestry programs in Bangladesh. Hum Ecol 28(3):433–450\nAndersson KP, Gibson C (2006) Decentralized governance and environmental change: local institutional moderation of deforestation in Bolivia. J Policy Anal Manag 26(1):99–123\nAuer MR, Karr-Colque C, McAlpine J, Doench B (2006) Forest law enforcement and governance: resolve needed from all sides. Georget Public Policy Rev 11(1):57–67\nBala G, Caldeira K, Wickett M, Phillips TJ, Lobell DB, Delire C, Mirin A (2007) Combined climate and carbon-cycle effects of large-scale deforestation. PNAS 104(16):6550–6555\nBandiaky S (2008) Gender inequality in Malidino biodiversity community-based reserve, Senegal: political parties and the ‘village approach’. Conserv Soc 6(1):62–73\nBecker GS (1968) Crime and punishment: an economic approach. J Polit Econ 76(2):169–217\nBecker H (1978) Outsiders. In: Rubington E, Weinberg M (eds) Deviance. Macmillan, New York, pp 11–24\nBlaikie P, Springate-Baginski O (2007) Setting up key policy issues in participatory forest management. In: Springate-Baginski O, Blaikie P (eds) Forests, policy and power: the political ecology of reform in South Asia. Earthscan, London, pp 1–23\nBlessing C, Jumbe L, Angelsen A (2006) Do the poor benefit from devolution policies? Evidence from Malawi’s forest co-management program. Land Econ 82(4):562–581\nBrook BW, Sodhi NS, Ng KLP (2003) Catastrophic extinctions follow deforestation in Singapore. Nature 424(6947):420–426\nCameron MM (1998) On the edge of the auspicious: gender and caste in Nepal. University of Illonois Press, Urbana\nCerutti PO, Tacconi L (2008) Forests, illegality, and livelihoods: the case of Cameroon. Soc Nat Resour 21(9):845–853\nChambliss WJ, Seidmann R (1971) Law, order and power. Addison-Wesley, London\nChhatre A, Agrawal A (2008) Forest commons and local enforcement. PNAS 105(36):13286–13291\nChhetri BBK, Larsen HO, Smith-Hall C (2010) Poverty, inequality and forest dependence in rural Nepal. A conference paper for national conference on forest-people interaction, 7–8 June, Tribhuvan University, Institute of Forestry, Pokhara\nColchester M (2006) Justice in the forest: rural livelihoods and forest law enforcement. Forest Perspectives 3. Center for International Forestry Research, Bogor\nDasgupta A, Beard VA (2007) Community driven development, collective action and elite capture in Indonesia. Dev Change 38(2):229–249\nDFO (District Forest Office) (2008) Community Forestry Program: Annual Monitoring and Evaluation Report 2007\u002F2008. District Forest Office, Gorkha\nDownes D, Rock P (1995) Understanding deviance: a guide to the sociology of crime and rule-breaking, 2nd edn. Clarendon Press, Oxford\nGautam KH (2006) Forestry, politicians and power-perspectives from Nepal’s forest policy. Forest Policy Econ 8(2):175–182\nGavin MC, Solomon JN, Blank SG (2010) Measuring and monitoring illegal use of natural resources. Conserv Biol 24(1):89–100\nGibson CG, Williams JT, Ostrom E (2005) Local enforcement and better forests. World Dev 33(2):273–284\nGilmour DA (2003) Retrospective and prospective view of community forestry in Nepal. J For Livelihood 2(2):5–7\nGraham H (2003) Policing the forests of pre-industrial France. Eur Hist Q 33(2):157–182\nGupte M (2004) Participation in a gendered environment: the case of community forestry in India. Hum Ecol 32(3):365–382\nHMG (1976) National forestry plan 1976 (2033). Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, Kathmandu\nHMG (1989) Master plan for the forestry sector, forest sector policy. Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, Kathmandu\nHMG (1993) Forest act 1993. Official translation. His Majesty’s Government of Nepal. Government Press, Kathmandu\nHMG (1995) Forest regulations. Official translation. His Majesty’s Government of Nepal. Government Press, Kathmandu\nHobley M (1996) Participatory forestry: the process of change in India and Nepal. ODI, London\nIversen V, Chhetry B, Francis P, Gurung M, Kafle G, Pain A, Seeley J (2006) High value forests, hidden economies and elite capture: evidence from forest user groups in Nepal’s Terai. Ecol Econ 58(1):93–107\nKaimowitz D (2007) Forest law enforcement and rural livelihoods. In: Tacconi L (ed) Illegal logging: law enforcement, livelihoods and the timber trade. Earthscan, London, pp 110–138\nKanel KR, Dahal GR (2008) Community forestry policy and its economic implications: an experience from Nepal. Int J Soc For 1(1):50–60\nKlooster D (2000) Community forestry and tree theft in Mexico: resistance or complicity in conservation? Dev Change 31(1):281–305\nLachapelle P, Smith P, McCool S (2004) Access to power or genuine empowerment? An analysis of three community forest user groups in Nepal. Hum Ecol Rev 11(1):1–12\nLarsen HO, Smith PD (2004) Stakeholder perspectives on commercial medicinal plant collection in Nepal: poverty and resource degradation. Mt Res Dev 24(2):141–148\nLarsen HO, Olsen CS, Boon TE (2000) The non-timber forest policy process in Nepal: actors, objectives and power. For Policy Econ 1(3–4):267–281\nLarsen HO, Smith PD, Olsen CS (2005) Nepal’s conservation policy options for commercial medicinal plant harvesting: stakeholder views. Oryx 39(4):435–441\nLynch MJ, Michalowski R (2006) Primer in radical criminology: critical perspectives on crime, power and identity. Criminal Justice Press, New York\nMalla YB (2001) Changing policies and the persistence of patron-client relationships in Nepal. Environ Hist 6(2):287–307\nMalla YB, Neupane HR, Branney PJ (2003) Why aren’t poor benefiting more from community forestry? J For Livelihood 3(1):78–90\nNightingale AJ (2002) Participating or just sitting in? The dynamics of gender and caste in community forestry. J For Livelihoods 2(1):17–24\nOlsen CS, Helles F (2009) Market efficiency and benefit distribution in medicinal plant markets: empirical evidence from South Asia. Int J Biodivers Sci Manag 5(2):53–62\nOstrom E (1990) Governing the commons: the evolution of institutions for collective action. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge\nOstrom E, Nagendra H (2006) Insights on linking forests, trees, and people from the air, on the ground, and in the laboratory. PNAS 103(51):19224–19331\nPacheco P (2005) Decentralization of forest management in Bolivia: who benefits and why? In: Colfer CJ, Capistrano D (eds) The politics of decentralization: forests, people and power. Earthscan, London, pp 166–183\nPagdee A, Kim Y-S, Daugherty PJ (2006) What makes community forest management successful: a meta-study from community forests throughout the world. Soc Nat Resour 19(1):33–52\nPaudel NS, Banjade MR, Dahal GR (2008) Handover of community forestry: a political decision or technical process? J For Livelihood 7(1):27–35\nPEN (2007) PEN technical guidelines, version 4. Poverty Environment Network, Center for International Forestry Research, Bogor\nPendleton MR (1997) Looking the other way: the institutional accommodation of tree theft. Qual Sociol 20(3):325–340\nPradhan R, Shrestha A (2005) Ethnic and caste diversity: implications for development. Asian Development Bank, Kathmandu\nRibot JC (2004) Waiting for democracy: the politics of choice in natural resource management. World Resources Institute, Washington, DC\nSchur E (1971) Labeling deviant dehavior. Harper, New York\nShrestha KK, McManus P (2007) The embeddedness of collective action in Nepalese community forestry. Small Scale For 6(4):273–290\nSunderlin WD, Hatcher J, Liddle M (2008) From exclusion to ownership? Challenges and opportunities in advancing forest tenure reform. Rights and Resources Initiative, Washington DC\nTachibana T, Adhikari S (2009) Does community-based management improve natural resource condition? Evidence from the forests in Nepal. Land Econ 85(1):107–131\nWorld Bank (2006) Strengthening forest law enforcement and governance: Addressing a systematic constraint to sustainable development. The World Bank, Washington DC",{"VOID":1285},"10.1007\u002Fs11842-011-9194-7","https:\u002F\u002Flink.springer.com\u002Farticle\u002F10.1007\u002Fs11842-011-9194-7",[1288,1303,1318],{"id":1289,"sortIndex":21,"researcher":20,"roles":1290,"affiliations":1291,"properties":1300,"displayName":1302,"givenName":20,"familyName":20},"427645d9-1762-43b6-8450-fc76b91da5fd",[176],[1292],{"id":1293,"sortIndex":21,"affiliation":1294,"properties":20},"95b0ebdd-0faa-41d7-a900-e7f750d59cd2",{"id":1293,"createTime":20,"updateTime":20,"relativeEntities":1295,"slug":20,"properties":1296,"entityType":20,"verifyStatus":20,"verifyTime":20,"verifyNote":20,"languages":20,"translateLanguages":20,"viewCount":20,"url":20,"parentIds":1299,"statistic":20},[],{"title":1297},{"VI":1298},"Institute of Forestry, Hariyokharka, Pokhara, Nepal",[],{"title":1301},{"VI":1302},"Bir Bahadur Khanal Chhetri",{"id":1304,"sortIndex":92,"researcher":20,"roles":1305,"affiliations":1306,"properties":1315,"displayName":1317,"givenName":20,"familyName":20},"9d506ae9-4c5d-4a4f-a687-823e0f5b8b22",[176],[1307],{"id":1308,"sortIndex":21,"affiliation":1309,"properties":20},"9309cff0-61d2-43b8-b753-082ec13bad97",{"id":1308,"createTime":20,"updateTime":20,"relativeEntities":1310,"slug":20,"properties":1311,"entityType":20,"verifyStatus":20,"verifyTime":20,"verifyNote":20,"languages":20,"translateLanguages":20,"viewCount":20,"url":20,"parentIds":1314,"statistic":20},[],{"title":1312},{"VI":1313},"Centre for Forest, Landscape and Planning, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg C, Denmark",[],{"title":1316},{"VI":1317},"Helle Overgaard Larsen",{"id":1319,"sortIndex":117,"researcher":20,"roles":1320,"affiliations":1321,"properties":1328,"displayName":1330,"givenName":20,"familyName":20},"d8b66d2f-f714-43d9-b9ee-c4487b2e7fc2",[176],[1322],{"id":1308,"sortIndex":21,"affiliation":1323,"properties":20},{"id":1308,"createTime":20,"updateTime":20,"relativeEntities":1324,"slug":20,"properties":1325,"entityType":20,"verifyStatus":20,"verifyTime":20,"verifyNote":20,"languages":20,"translateLanguages":20,"viewCount":20,"url":20,"parentIds":1327,"statistic":20},[],{"title":1326},{"VI":1313},[],{"title":1329},{"VI":1330},"Carsten Smith-Hall",{"url":1286,"publisher":1332,"properties":1374},{"id":6,"createTime":7,"updateTime":8,"relativeEntities":1333,"slug":10,"properties":1334,"entityType":18,"verifyStatus":19,"verifyTime":20,"verifyNote":20,"languages":20,"translateLanguages":20,"viewCount":21,"subjectFields":1338,"manageAffiliations":1343,"indexDatabases":1354,"url":20,"thumbnailPath":20,"statistic":1369,"gsStatistic":20,"type":20,"analyzePriority":20},[],{"issn":1335,"title":1336,"eissn":1337},{"VOID":13},{"EN":15},{"VOID":17},[1339],{"id":24,"createTime":20,"updateTime":20,"relativeEntities":1340,"label":1341,"description":1342,"parentId":20,"standard":20,"scholarHubFieldId":20},[],{"EN":27},{},[1344,1349],{"id":31,"createTime":20,"updateTime":20,"relativeEntities":1345,"slug":20,"properties":1346,"entityType":20,"verifyStatus":20,"verifyTime":20,"verifyNote":20,"languages":20,"translateLanguages":20,"viewCount":20,"url":20,"parentIds":1348,"statistic":20},[],{"title":1347},{"EN":35},[37],{"id":39,"createTime":20,"updateTime":20,"relativeEntities":1350,"slug":20,"properties":1351,"entityType":20,"verifyStatus":20,"verifyTime":20,"verifyNote":20,"languages":20,"translateLanguages":20,"viewCount":20,"url":20,"parentIds":1353,"statistic":20},[],{"title":1352},{"EN":43},[],[1355,1362],{"id":47,"indexDatabase":1356,"url":60,"indexYears":20,"academicFieldIds":1361,"indexDatabaseRanking":20},{"id":49,"createTime":20,"updateTime":20,"relativeEntities":1357,"label":1358,"description":1359,"key":56,"publicationTags":1360,"standard":20},[],{"EN":52,"VI":52},{"EN":54,"VI":55},[58,59],[62],{"id":64,"indexDatabase":1363,"url":75,"indexYears":76,"academicFieldIds":1368,"indexDatabaseRanking":79},{"id":66,"createTime":20,"updateTime":20,"relativeEntities":1364,"label":1365,"description":1366,"key":72,"publicationTags":1367,"standard":20},[],{"EN":69,"VI":69},{"EN":69,"VI":71},[74],[78],{"impactFactor":21,"impactFactorByYear":1370,"i10Index":91,"i10IndexLast5Year":92,"totalPublication":93,"totalPublicationByYear":1371,"totalCitation":114,"totalCitationByYear":1372,"totalCitationPerPublication":129,"totalCitationPerPublicationByYear":1373,"hindexLast5Year":112,"hindex":112},{"2012":82,"2013":83,"2014":84,"2015":83,"2016":85,"2017":86,"2018":87,"2019":88,"2020":89,"2021":90,"2022":87,"2023":84},{"2002":95,"2003":96,"2004":97,"2005":96,"2006":98,"2007":99,"2008":100,"2009":101,"2010":102,"2011":103,"2012":104,"2013":105,"2014":106,"2015":107,"2016":108,"2017":101,"2018":109,"2019":110,"2020":106,"2021":106,"2022":111,"2023":112,"2024":113},{"2007":116,"2008":117,"2009":118,"2010":119,"2011":120,"2012":121,"2013":122,"2014":123,"2015":124,"2016":95,"2017":125,"2018":126,"2019":109,"2020":127,"2021":110,"2022":128,"2023":113},{"2007":131,"2008":132,"2009":133,"2010":134,"2011":135,"2012":136,"2013":113,"2014":137,"2015":138,"2016":84,"2017":139,"2018":140,"2019":141,"2020":142,"2021":143,"2022":144,"2023":145},{"pages":1375,"volume":1377},{"VOID":1376},"435-452",{"VOID":1378},"11","2012-01-01",2012,[74,58],{"id":1383,"createTime":1384,"updateTime":1385,"relativeEntities":1386,"slug":1387,"properties":1388,"entityType":167,"verifyStatus":168,"verifyTime":1385,"verifyNote":170,"languages":20,"translateLanguages":20,"viewCount":21,"primaryUrl":1397,"fullTextUrl":20,"authors":1398,"publicationType":261,"publisherRelationship":1444,"citationCount":20,"citationInfo":20,"publishDate":1492,"publishYear":1380,"citationAnalyzeStatus":19,"lastCitationAnalyze":20,"indexDatabases":1493,"openAccess":20,"references":20,"isForceReanalyzing":318},"ff15130b-902b-4e33-b4b5-62e5e3caf1cd","2024-01-12T16:38:50.221+00:00","2025-02-26T00:30:43.967+00:00",[],"Financial-Performance-of-Contract-Tree-Farming-for-Smallholders-The-Case-of-Contract-Eucalypt-Tree-Farming-in-Thailand",{"abstract":1389,"title":1391,"references":1393,"doi":1395},{"EN":1390},"Eucalypt (Eucalyptus spp.) tree farming is a source of income for many smallholders in developing and emerging countries and critical to the resource supply of many pulp and paper companies. These companies rely on smallholders adopting tree farming, sometimes by offering a contract. This paper reports a study from four regions of Thailand, where smallholder eucalypt tree farming is practiced, which investigated the financial performance of contract eucalypt tree farming for smallholders. A total of 82 contract eucalypt tree farmers and 81 independent tree farmers were systematically selected and surveyed in these regions, using door-to-door personal interviews. Focus groups and key informant interviews were also used to gain in-depth understanding of the issues. An investment appraisal analysis was used to determine and evaluate comparative financial returns from various cutting cycle periods, through computation of the net present value (NPV). There was no evidence that contracts increase the NPV of tree growing. It could be that tree growers entered into a contractual agreement with the expectation of higher benefits and the importance of this expectation diminishes as the crop matures, and tree farmers appreciate the strong market for eucalypt wood in Thailand. Contracts do not increase inequalities in terms of income but they might increase inequalities in terms of knowledge, because farmers with more land have better access to new knowledge provided by the contracting company.",{"EN":1392},"Financial Performance of Contract Tree Farming for Smallholders: The Case of Contract Eucalypt Tree Farming in Thailand",{"VOID":1394},"ADB (2005a) LAO: industrial tree plantation project. Loan completion report, ADB edn. Asian Development Bank, Manila\nADB (2005b) Proposed loan and Asian development fund grant Lao People’s Democratic Republic: forest plantations development project. ADB report and recommendation of the President to the Board of Directors, ADB edn. Asian Development Bank, Manila\nAlbers HJ, Robinson EJZ (2007) Spatial-temporal aspects of cost-benefit analysis for park management: an example from Khao Yai National Park, Thailand. J For Econom 13(2–3):129–150\nBarney K (2005) At the supply edge: Thailand’s forest policies, plantation sector, and commodity export links with China. China and forest trade in the Asia-Pacific region: implications for forests and livelihoods. Forest Trends, Washington DC\nBoulay A (2010) Contract tree farming and smallholders: drivers of adoption and livelihood impacts in Thailand. PhD thesis, Australian National University, Canberra\nBoulay A, Tacconi L (2012) The drivers of contract eucalypt farming in Thailand. Int For Rev 14(1)\nBoulay A, Tacconi L, Kanowski P (2012) Drivers of adoption of eucalypt tree farming by smallholders in Thailand. Agrofor Syst:1–11. doi:10.1007\u002Fs10457-011-9451-y\nCairns R (2000) Outgrower timber schemes in KwaZulu-Natal: do they build sustainable rural livelihoods and what interventions should be made? Instruments for sustainable private sector forestry., South Africa seriesInternational Institute for Environment and Development and CSIR-Environmentek, London and Pretoria\nClapp RA (1994) The moral economy of the contract. In: Little PD, Watts MJ (eds) Living under contract. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison\nCossalter C, Pye-Smith C (2003) Fast-wood forestry: myths and realities. Myths and realities. CIFOR, Bogor\nDesmond H, Race D (2000) Global survey and analytical framework for forestry out-grower arrangements. Department of Forestry, Australian National University for Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome\nESCAP UN (2007) Statistical Yearbook for Asia and the Pacific 2007. http:\u002F\u002Fwww.unescap.org\u002Fstat\u002Fdata\u002Fsyb2007\u002F22-Inflation-and-interest-rates-syb2007.asp. Accessed 28 May 2008\nEvans J, Turnbull JW (2004) Plantation forestry in the tropics, 3rd edn. Oxford University Press, New York\nHarrison SR, Herbohn JL (2001) Towards a vibrant tropical small-scale forestry industry: imperatives, opportunities and challenges. In: Harrison SR, Herbohn JL (eds) Sustainable farm forestry in the tropics: social and economic analysis and policy. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, pp 271–282\nKey N, Runsten D (1999) Contract farming, smallholders, and rural development in Latin America: the organization of agroprocessing firms and the scale of outgrower production. World Dev 27(2):381–401\nLittle PD, Watts MJ (1994) Living under contract: contract farming and agrarian transformation in Sub-Saharan Africa. The University Of Wisconsin Press, Madison\nMaille P (1991) Refining a previous analysis of the economics of a eucalyptus\u002Fagricultural crop combination. Agrofor Syst 14(1991):145–148\nMayers J (2006) Poverty reduction through commercial forestry: What evidence? What prospects? Research paper no. 2, vol 2. The Forests Dialogue, Yale University School of Forestry & Environmental Studies\nMayers J, Vermeulen S (2002) Company-community forestry partnerships: from raw deals to mutual gains? Instruments for sustainable private sector forestry series. International Institute for Environment and Development, London\nMayers J, Evans J, Foy T (2001) Raising the stakes: impacts of privatisation, certification and partnerships in South African forestry. Instruments for sustainable private sector forestry. International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED), London\nNiskanen A (1998a) Financial and economic profitability of reforestation in Thailand. For Ecol Manag 104(1–3):57–68. doi:10.1016\u002Fs0378-1127(97)00263-6\nNiskanen A (1998b) Value of external environmental impacts of reforestation in Thailand. Ecol Econom 26(3):287–297\nSalee K (2009) Manager of contract farming at Phoenix Pulp and Paper. Personal communication with Boulay A, Khon Kaen\nScherr SJ, White A, Kaimowitz D (2002) Making markets work for forest communities. Forest Trends, Washington D.C., United States of America\nSingh S (2002) Contracting out solutions: political economy of contract farming in the Indian Punjab. World Dev 30(9):1621–1638\nThaiutsa B (2002) Silvicultural management of private eucalyptus plantations for wood chips in Thailand. In: Wei R-P, Xu D (eds) International symposium on eucalyptus plantations: research, management and development. Guangzhou, China\nTiwari DN (2000) Sustainability criteria and cost–benefit analysis: an analytical framework for environmental–economic decision making at the project level. Environ Dev Econom 5(259–288)\nWannawong S, Belt GH, McKetta CW (1991) Benefit-cost analysis of selected agroforestry systems in Northeastern Thailand. Agrofor Syst 16(1):83–94\nWarning M, Key N (2002) The social performance and distributional consequences of contract farming: an equilibrium analysis of the Arachide de Bouche program in Senegal. World Dev 30(2):255–263\nWilson J (1986) The political economy of contract farming. Rev Radic Polit Econom 18(4):47–70\nWiriyapong N (2008) Siam cement group eyes concessions in Laos, Cambodia Bangkok Post, 09 May 2008",{"VOID":1396},"10.1007\u002Fs11842-012-9201-7","https:\u002F\u002Flink.springer.com\u002Farticle\u002F10.1007\u002Fs11842-012-9201-7",[1399,1414,1429],{"id":1400,"sortIndex":21,"researcher":20,"roles":1401,"affiliations":1402,"properties":1411,"displayName":1413,"givenName":20,"familyName":20},"025a51c8-64e4-41a4-9a13-68a33613065c",[176],[1403],{"id":1404,"sortIndex":21,"affiliation":1405,"properties":20},"6c17fe5a-2f29-4f45-9575-116f33cbde6d",{"id":1404,"createTime":20,"updateTime":20,"relativeEntities":1406,"slug":20,"properties":1407,"entityType":20,"verifyStatus":20,"verifyTime":20,"verifyNote":20,"languages":20,"translateLanguages":20,"viewCount":20,"url":20,"parentIds":1410,"statistic":20},[],{"title":1408},{"VI":1409},"Inter-American Development Bank, Washington, USA",[],{"title":1412},{"VI":1413},"Axelle Boulay",{"id":1415,"sortIndex":92,"researcher":20,"roles":1416,"affiliations":1417,"properties":1426,"displayName":1428,"givenName":20,"familyName":20},"b72bdae5-4ce2-4794-85a0-9268638c7ad9",[176],[1418],{"id":1419,"sortIndex":21,"affiliation":1420,"properties":20},"a89c8118-f577-4a6f-aac0-61300d9a7a96",{"id":1419,"createTime":20,"updateTime":20,"relativeEntities":1421,"slug":20,"properties":1422,"entityType":20,"verifyStatus":20,"verifyTime":20,"verifyNote":20,"languages":20,"translateLanguages":20,"viewCount":20,"url":20,"parentIds":1425,"statistic":20},[],{"title":1423},{"VI":1424},"Crawford School of Economics and Government, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia",[],{"title":1427},{"VI":1428},"Luca Tacconi",{"id":1430,"sortIndex":117,"researcher":20,"roles":1431,"affiliations":1432,"properties":1441,"displayName":1443,"givenName":20,"familyName":20},"a50fe328-7a88-4a95-800e-0bd93ef6e572",[176],[1433],{"id":1434,"sortIndex":21,"affiliation":1435,"properties":20},"99fe504f-6cf0-47dd-98dd-7267d9ab4700",{"id":1434,"createTime":20,"updateTime":20,"relativeEntities":1436,"slug":20,"properties":1437,"entityType":20,"verifyStatus":20,"verifyTime":20,"verifyNote":20,"languages":20,"translateLanguages":20,"viewCount":20,"url":20,"parentIds":1440,"statistic":20},[],{"title":1438},{"VI":1439},"Fenner School of Environment and Society, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia",[],{"title":1442},{"VI":1443},"Peter 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paper reviews tree seed and seedling supply systems in sub-Saharan Africa, Asia and Latin America. Across these regions, the review found that some of the germplasm supply systems do not efficiently meet farmers’ demands and environmental expectations in terms of productivity, species and genetic diversity. In some countries, germplasm used is mostly sourced from undocumented sources and often untested. Germplasm quality control systems are only found in a few countries. Appreciation of the value of tree germplasm of high genetic quality is low. Non-government organisations (NGOs) in many African countries play a prominent role in the supply of germplasm which is usually given to farmers without charge. The practice of giving farmers free germplasm by NGOs in many African countries and also government participation in germplasm supply in some Asian countries has been blamed for crowding out private entrepreneurs, although this is not substantiated by any evidence to suggest that the smallholder farmers are willing and able to pay for the germplasm. In some Latin American countries, private companies, government and NGOs provide farmers tree germplasm in a partnership in which farmers provide land and labour in return. Overall, tree germplasm markets are large in Asia, due in part to large afforestation programs, intermediate in Latin America and small in Africa where smallholder farmers constitute the market. In countries where germplasm quality control is practiced, it is either through a legal framework or voluntary. A few countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America have developed protocols for certification of tree seeds based on the OECD. Some germplasm suppliers use branding as a way of differentiating their germplasm as having superior quality. To enhance the use of high quality germplasm, there is a need to demonstrate the value of using such germplasm and raise awareness of germplasm quality among the farmers and policy-makers.",{"EN":1504},"Tree Seed and Seedling Supply Systems: A Review of the Asia, Africa and Latin America Models",{"VOID":1506},"Aalbæk A (1997) Demand and supply patterns for tree germplasm among farmers in the northeastern highlands of Tanzania. Paper prepared for workshop at ICRAF, 6–8 Oct 1997\nAsare R, Pedersen AP (2004) Distribution of tree seed and seedlings: the ICRAF\u002FDanida Programme on Improved Seed Systems for Agroforestry in African Countries (ISSAAC). Forest and landscape working papers no. 2–2004, Hørsholm, Denmark\nBabalola FD (2008) Assessment of small-scale private nursery enterprises in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. Small scale For 7(3\u002F4):263–273\nBasweti C, Lengkeek A, Prytz P, Jaenicke H (2001) Tree nursery trade in urban and peri-urban areas. A survey in Nairobi and Kiambu Districts, Kenya. RELMA Working Paper No. 13. Regional Land Management Unit, Swedish International development Cooperation Agency. Nairobi\nBöhringer A, Ayuk ET (2003) Farmer nurseries as a catalyst for developing sustainable land use systems in southern Africa. Part B: support systems, early impact and policy issues. Agric Syst 77(3):203–217\nBöhringer A, Ayuk ET, Katanga R, Ruvuga S (2003) Farmer nurseries as a catalyst for developing sustainable land use systems in southern Africa. Part A: nursery productivity and organization. Agric Syst 77(3):187–201\nBrandi E, Lillesø J-PB, Moestrup S, Kisera HK (2007) Do organizations provide quality seed to smallholders? A study on tree planting in Uganda, by NGOs and CBOs. Development and environment no. 8. 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