Initiation of translation in prokaryotes and eukaryotes

Gene - Tập 234 - Trang 187-208 - 1999
Marilyn Kozak1
1Department of Biochemistry, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, 675 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA

Tài liệu tham khảo

Adhin, 1990, Scanning model for translational reinitiation in eubacteria, J. Mol. Biol., 213, 811, 10.1016/S0022-2836(05)80265-7 Aimi, 1990, De novo purine nucleotide biosynthesis: cloning of human and avian cDNAs encoding the trifunctional GARS–AIRS–GART by functional complementation in E. coli, Nucleic Acids Res., 18, 6665, 10.1093/nar/18.22.6665 Akiri, 1998, Regulation of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression is mediated by internal initiation of translation and alternative initiation of transcription, Oncogene, 17, 227, 10.1038/sj.onc.1202019 Altmann, 1990, The 5′ leader sequence of tobacco mosaic virus RNA mediates IF-4E independent, but still IF-4A dependent translation in yeast extracts, Gene, 91, 127, 10.1016/0378-1119(90)90173-O Altmann, 1993, A Saccharomyces cerevisiae homologue of mammalian translation initiation factor 4B contributes to RNA helicase activity, EMBO J., 12, 3997, 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1993.tb06077.x Altmann, 1995, The Saccharomyces cerevisiae translation initiation factor Tif3 and its mammalian homologue eIF-4B have RNA annealing activity, EMBO J., 14, 3820, 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1995.tb00051.x Arrick, 1994, Enhanced translational efficiency of a novel transforming growth factor β3 mRNA in human breast cancer cells, Mol. Cell. Biol., 14, 619, 10.1128/MCB.14.1.619 Asai, 1999, An Escherichia coli strain with all chromosomal rRNA operons inactivated: complete exchange of rRNA genes between bacteria, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 96, 1971, 10.1073/pnas.96.5.1971 Asano, 1998, Complex formation by all five homologues of mammalian translation initiation factor 3 subunits from Saccharomyces cerevisiae, J. Biol. Chem., 273, 18573, 10.1074/jbc.273.29.18573 Asano, 1999, Conserved bipartite motifs in yeast eIF5 and eIF2Bε, GTPase-activating and GDP–GTP exchange factors in translation initiation, mediate binding to their common substrate eIF2, EMBO J., 18, 1673, 10.1093/emboj/18.6.1673 Asselbergs, 1978, Diminished sensitivity of reinitiation of translation to inhibition by cap analogues in reticulocyte lysates, Eur. J. Biochem., 88, 483, 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1978.tb12473.x Aström, 1994, Rit1, a tRNA backbone-modifying enzyme that mediates initiator and elongator tRNA discrimination, Cell, 79, 535, 10.1016/0092-8674(94)90262-3 Atkins, 1996, A case for trans translation, Nature, 379, 769, 10.1038/379769a0 Baklouti, 1996, Asynchronous regulation of splicing events within protein 4.1 pre-mRNA during erythroid differentiation, Blood, 87, 3934, 10.1182/blood.V87.9.3934.bloodjournal8793934 Balachandran, 1998, Activation of the dsRNA-dependent protein kinase PKR induces apoptosis through FADD-mediated death signaling, EMBO J., 17, 6888, 10.1093/emboj/17.23.6888 Bandyopadhyay, 1999, Cloning and characterization of the p42 subunit of mammalian translation initiation factor 3 (eIF3): demonstration that eIF3 interacts with eIF5 in mammalian cells, Nucleic Acids Res., 27, 1331, 10.1093/nar/27.5.1331 Bannert, 1996, Interleukin-16 or not?, Nature, 381, 29, 10.1038/381030a0 Barrick, 1994, Quantitative analysis of ribosome binding sites in E. coli, Nucleic Acids Res., 22, 1287, 10.1093/nar/22.7.1287 Beelman, 1995, Degradation of mRNA in eukaryotes, Cell, 81, 179, 10.1016/0092-8674(95)90326-7 Bejanin, 1994, A unique gene organization for two cholinergic markers, choline acetyltransferase and a putative vesicular transporter of acetylcholine, J. Biol. Chem., 269, 21944, 10.1016/S0021-9258(17)31738-6 Benne, 1978, The mechanism of action of protein synthesis initiation factors from rabbit reticulocytes, J. Biol. Chem., 253, 3078, 10.1016/S0021-9258(17)40805-2 Bensing, 1997, Pheromone-inducible expression of an aggregation protein in Enterococcus faecalis requires interaction of a plasmid-encoded RNA with components of the ribosome, Molec. Microbiol., 24, 295, 10.1046/j.1365-2958.1997.3311709.x Bergenhem, 1992, Mutation creates an open reading frame within the 5′ UTR of macaque CA I mRNA that suppresses CA I expression and supports the scanning model for translation, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 89, 8798, 10.1073/pnas.89.18.8798 Bernstein, 1997, PDGF2/c-sis mRNA leader contains a differentiation-linked internal ribosomal entry site (D-IRES), J. Biol. Chem., 272, 9356, 10.1074/jbc.272.14.9356 Bertolaet, 1995, Introns and the origin of protein-coding genes, Science, 268, 1367, 10.1126/science.7761859 Bevec, 1996, Inhibition of HIV-1 replication in lymphocytes by mutants of the Rev cofactor eIF-5A, Science, 271, 1858, 10.1126/science.271.5257.1858 Blattner, 1997, The complete genome sequence of Escherichia coli K-12, Science, 277, 1453, 10.1126/science.277.5331.1453 Blomberg, 1992, Replication control of plasmid R1: RepA synthesis is regulated by CopA RNA through inhibition of leader peptide translation, EMBO J., 11, 2675, 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1992.tb05333.x Bosio, 1996, The human gene CGT encoding the UDP-galactose ceramide galactosyl transferase (cerebroside synthase), Genomics, 34, 69, 10.1006/geno.1996.0242 Brink, 1995, Specialized ribosomes: highly specific translation in vivo of a single targetted mRNA species, Gene, 156, 215, 10.1016/0378-1119(95)00030-A Brunel, 1995, Stabilized secondary structure at a ribosomal binding site enhances translational repression in E. coli, J. Mol. Biol., 253, 277, 10.1006/jmbi.1995.0552 Butler, 1987, AUU-to-AUG mutation in the initiator codon of the translation initiation factor IF3 abolishes translational autocontrol of its own gene (infC) in vivo, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 84, 4022, 10.1073/pnas.84.12.4022 Cao, 1998, Ribosomal release without peptidyl tRNA hydrolysis at translation termination in a eukaryotic system, RNA, 4, 181 Chakrabarti, 1991, Function of eukaryotic initiation factor 5 in the formation of an 80S ribosomal polypeptide chain initiation complex, J. Biol. Chem., 266, 14039, 10.1016/S0021-9258(18)92807-3 Chaudhuri, 1997, Function of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 1A (eIF1A) (formerly called eIF-4C) in initiation of protein synthesis, J. Biol. Chem., 272, 7883, 10.1074/jbc.272.12.7883 Chaudhuri, 1997, Biochemical characterization of mammalian translation initiation factor 3 (eIF3). Molecular cloning reveals that p110 subunit is the mammalian homologue of Saccharomyces cerevisiae protein Prt1, J. Biol. Chem., 272, 30975, 10.1074/jbc.272.49.30975 Chen, 1994, Determination of the optimal aligned spacing between the Shine–Dalgarno sequence and the translation initiation codon of Escherichia coli mRNAs, Nucleic Acids Res., 22, 4953, 10.1093/nar/22.23.4953 Chen, 1994, The influence of adenine-rich motifs in the 3′ portion of the ribosome binding site on human IFN-γ gene expression in Escherichia coli, J. Mol. Biol., 240, 20, 10.1006/jmbi.1994.1414 Choi, 1998, Promotion of Met-tRNAmeti binding to ribosomes by yIF2, a bacterial IF2 homologue in yeast, Science, 280, 1757, 10.1126/science.280.5370.1757 Chuang, 1997, Requirement of the DEAD-Box protein Ded1p for messenger RNA translation, Science, 275, 1468, 10.1126/science.275.5305.1468 Cigan, 1988, tRNAmeti functions in directing the scanning ribosome to the start site of translation, Science, 242, 93, 10.1126/science.3051379 Cigan, 1988, Mutational analysis of the HIS4 translational initiator region in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Mol. Cell. Biol., 8, 2964, 10.1128/MCB.8.7.2964 Clemens, 1997, The double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase PKR: structure and function, J. Interferon Cytokine Res., 17, 503, 10.1089/jir.1997.17.503 Clemens, 1982, Phosphorylation inhibits guanine nucleotide exchange on eukaryotic initiation factor 2, Nature, 296, 93, 10.1038/296093a0 Coetzee, 1996, Molecular cloning, chromosomal mapping, and characterization of the mouse UDP-galactose:ceramide galactosyltransferase gene, Genomics, 35, 215, 10.1006/geno.1996.0341 Cole, 1998, Deciphering the biology of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from the complete genome sequence, Nature, 393, 537, 10.1038/31159 Coller, 1998, mRNA stabilization by poly(A) binding protein is independent of poly(A) and requires translation, Genes Devel., 12, 3226, 10.1101/gad.12.20.3226 Crawford, 1999, Indirect regulation of translational termination efficiency at highly expressed genes and recoding sites by the factor recycling function of Escherichia coli release factor RF3, EMBO J., 18, 727, 10.1093/emboj/18.3.727 Cruikshank, 1994, Molecular and functional analysis of a lymphocyte chemoattractant factor: association of biologic function with CD4 expression, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 91, 5109, 10.1073/pnas.91.11.5109 Cuddihy, 1999, Double-stranded-RNA-activated protein kinase PKR enhances transcriptional activation by tumor suppressor p53, Mol. Cell. Biol., 19, 2475, 10.1128/MCB.19.4.2475 Cui, 1998, The Mof2/Sui1 protein is a general monitor of translational accuracy, Mol. Cell. Biol., 18, 1506, 10.1128/MCB.18.3.1506 Cunillera, 1997, The Arabidopsis thaliana FPS1 gene generates a novel mRNA that encodes a mitochondrial farnesyl-diphosphate synthase isoform, J. Biol. Chem., 272, 15381, 10.1074/jbc.272.24.15381 Das, 1997, Specific interaction of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 5 (eIF5) with the β-subunit of eIF2, J. Biol. Chem., 272, 31712, 10.1074/jbc.272.50.31712 Davies, 1989, Complementation of adenovirus VA RNA I gene deletion by expression of a mutant eukaryotic translation initiation factor, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 86, 9163, 10.1073/pnas.86.23.9163 De Gregorio, 1998, Translational activation of uncapped mRNAs by the central part of human eIF4G is 5′ end-dependent, RNA, 4, 828, 10.1017/S1355838298980372 De Smit, 1990, Control of prokaryotic translational initiation by mRNA secondary structure, Progr. Nucleic Acids Res. Mol. Biol., 38, 1, 10.1016/S0079-6603(08)60707-2 De Smit, 1994, Translational initiation on structured messengers. Another role for the Shine–Dalgarno interaction, J. Mol. Biol., 235, 173, 10.1016/S0022-2836(05)80024-5 De Smit, 1994, Control of translation by mRNA secondary structure in Escherichia coli. A quantitative analysis of literature data, J. Mol. Biol., 244, 144, 10.1006/jmbi.1994.1714 Denhez, 1994, Conservation of regulated alternative splicing and identification of functional domains in vertebrate homologs to the Drosophila splicing regulator, suppressor-of-white-apricot, J. Biol. Chem., 269, 16170, 10.1016/S0021-9258(17)33989-3 Di Fruscio, 1998, Genomic structure of Unp, a murine gene encoding a ubiquitin-specific protease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 398, 9, 10.1016/S0167-4781(98)00035-9 Donahue, 1988, Genetic selection for mutations that reduce or abolish ribosomal recognition of the HIS4 translational initiator region, Mol. Cell. Biol., 8, 2955, 10.1128/MCB.8.7.2955 Drabkin, 1998, Initiation of protein synthesis in mammalian cells with codons other than AUG and amino acids other than methionine, Mol. Cell. Biol., 18, 5140, 10.1128/MCB.18.9.5140 Drabkin, 1993, The role of nucleotides conserved in eukaryotic initiator methionine tRNAs in initiation of protein synthesis, J. Biol. Chem., 268, 25221, 10.1016/S0021-9258(19)74591-8 Drabkin, 1998, Initiator–elongator discrimination in vertebrate tRNAs for protein synthesis, Mol. Cell. Biol., 18, 1459, 10.1128/MCB.18.3.1459 Elroy-Stein, 1989, Cap-independent translation of mRNA conferred by EMCV 5′ sequence improves the performance of the vaccinia virus/bacteriophage T7 hybrid expression system, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 86, 6126, 10.1073/pnas.86.16.6126 Etchegaray, 1998, Downstream box: a hidden translational enhancer, Molec. Microbiol., 27, 871, 10.1046/j.1365-2958.1998.00730.x Farruggio, 1996, The A1·U72 base pair conserved in eukaryotic initiator tRNAs is important specifically for binding to the eukaryotic translation initiation factor eIF2, Mol. Cell. Biol., 16, 4248, 10.1128/MCB.16.8.4248 Feng, 1997, FMRP associates with polyribosomes as an mRNP, and the 1304N mutation of severe fragile X syndrome abolishes this association, Molec. Cell, 1, 109, 10.1016/S1097-2765(00)80012-X Gabashvili, 1999, Structure and structural variations of the Escherichia coli 30S ribosomal subunit as revealed by three-dimensional cryo-electron microscopy, J. Mol. Biol., 286, 1285, 10.1006/jmbi.1999.2538 Gale, 1998, Control of PKR protein kinase by hepatitis C virus nonstructural 5A protein: molecular mechanisms of kinase regulation, Mol. Cell. Biol., 18, 5208, 10.1128/MCB.18.9.5208 Gallant, 1998, Ribosomes can slide over and beyond ‘hungry’ codons, resuming protein chain elongation many nucleotides downstream, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 95, 13771, 10.1073/pnas.95.23.13771 Gallie, 1989, A translational enhancer derived from tobacco mosaic virus is functionally equivalent to a Shine–Dalgarno sequence, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 86, 129, 10.1073/pnas.86.1.129 Gamarnik, 1997, Two functional complexes formed by KN domain containing proteins with the 5′ noncoding region of poliovirus RNA, RNA, 3, 882 Gammie, 1999, The two forms of karyogamy transcription factor Kar4p are regulated by differential initiation of transcription, translation, and protein turnover, Mol. Cell. Biol., 19, 817, 10.1128/MCB.19.1.817 Gan, 1998, Functional characterization of the internal ribosome entry site of eIF4G mRNA, J. Biol. Chem., 273, 5006, 10.1074/jbc.273.9.5006 Garcia-Barrio, 1995, GCD10, a translational repressor of GCN4, is the RNA-binding subunit of eukaryotic translation initiation factor-3, Genes Devel., 9, 1781, 10.1101/gad.9.14.1781 Garcia-Rios, 1997, Cloning of a polycistronic cDNA from tomato encoding γ-glutamyl kinase and γ-glutamyl phosphate reductase, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 94, 8249, 10.1073/pnas.94.15.8249 George, 1999, Human RNA-specific ADAR1 transcripts possess alternative exon 1 structures that initiate from different promoters, one constitutively active and the other interferon inducible, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 96, 4621, 10.1073/pnas.96.8.4621 Glass, 1993, Identification of the hepatitis A virus internal ribosome entry site: in vivo and in vitro analysis of bicistronic RNAs containing the HAV 5′ noncoding region, Virology, 193, 842, 10.1006/viro.1993.1193 Goss, 1984, Studies on the role of eukaryotic nucleotide exchange factor in polypeptide chain initiation, J. Biol. Chem., 259, 7374, 10.1016/S0021-9258(17)42798-0 Govantes, 1998, Mechanism of translational coupling in the nifLA operon of Klebsiella pneumoniae, EMBO J., 17, 2368, 10.1093/emboj/17.8.2368 Gradi, 1998, A novel functional human eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4G, Mol. Cell. Biol., 18, 334, 10.1128/MCB.18.1.334 Grant, 1994, Effect of sequence context at stop codons on efficiency of reinitiation in GCN4 translational control, Mol. Cell. Biol., 14, 606, 10.1128/MCB.14.1.606 Gray, 1998, Control of translation initiation in animals, Annu. Rev. Cell Dev. Biol., 14, 399, 10.1146/annurev.cellbio.14.1.399 Groeneveld, 1996, RNA phage KU1 has an insertion of 18 nucleotides in the start codon of its lysis gene, Virology, 218, 141, 10.1006/viro.1996.0174 Gu, 1994, Anti-peptidyl transferase leader peptides of attenuation-regulated chloramphenicol-resistance genes, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 91, 5612, 10.1073/pnas.91.12.5612 Gualerzi, 1990, Initiation of mRNA translation in prokaryotes, Biochemistry, 29, 5881, 10.1021/bi00477a001 Gunkel, 1998, Localization-dependent translation requires a functional interaction between the 5′ and 3′ ends of oskar mRNA, Genes Devel., 12, 1652, 10.1101/gad.12.11.1652 Gunnery, 1995, Functional mRNA can be generated by RNA polymerase III, Mol. Cell. Biol., 15, 3597, 10.1128/MCB.15.7.3597 Gupta, 1993, Unp, a mouse gene related to the tre oncogene, Oncogene, 8, 2307 Haghighat, 1997, eIF4G dramatically enhances binding of eIF4E to the mRNA 5′-cap structure, J. Biol. Chem., 272, 21677, 10.1074/jbc.272.35.21677 Harding, 1999, Protein translation and folding are coupled by an endoplasmic-reticulum-resident kinase, Nature, 397, 271, 10.1038/16729 Harington, 1994, Subcellular relocalization of a long-chain fatty acid CoA ligase by suppressor mutation alleviates a respiration deficiency in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, EMBO J., 13, 5531, 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1994.tb06890.x Hartz, 1991, Detection of Escherichia coli ribosome binding at translation initiation sites in the absence of tRNA, J. Mol. Biol., 218, 99, 10.1016/0022-2836(91)90876-8 He, 1998, The γ134.5 protein of herpes simplex virus I has the structural and functional attributes of a protein phosphatase 1 regulatory subunit and is present in a high molecular weight complex with the enzyme in infected cells, J. Biol. Chem., 273, 20737, 10.1074/jbc.273.33.20737 Hinnebusch, 1997, Translational regulation of yeast GCN4, J. Biol. Chem., 272, 21661, 10.1074/jbc.272.35.21661 Horikami, 1984, Characterization of the infections of permissive and nonpermissive cells by host range mutants of vesicular stomatitis virus defective in RNA methylation, Virology, 138, 1, 10.1016/0042-6822(84)90142-9 Horinouchi, 1980, Posttranscriptional modification of mRNA conformation: mechanism that regulates erythromycin-induced resistance, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 77, 7079, 10.1073/pnas.77.12.7079 Hu, 1999, rRNA-complementarity in the 5′ untranslated region of mRNA specifying the Gtx homeodomain protein: evidence that base pairing to 18S rRNA affects translational efficiency, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 96, 1339, 10.1073/pnas.96.4.1339 Huang, 1997, GTP hydrolysis controls stringent selection of the AUG start codon during translation initiation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Genes Devel., 11, 2396, 10.1101/gad.11.18.2396 Huez, 1998, Two independent internal ribosome entry sites are involved in translation initiation of vascular endothelial growth factor mRNA, Mol. Cell. Biol., 18, 6178, 10.1128/MCB.18.11.6178 Hummel, 1994, Restriction of fusion protein mRNA as a mechanism of measles virus persistence, Virology, 202, 665, 10.1006/viro.1994.1388 Hunt, 1999, Polypyrimidine-tract binding protein (PTB) is necessary, but not sufficient, for efficient internal initiation of translation of human rhinovirus-2 RNA, RNA, 5, 344, 10.1017/S1355838299981414 Hunt, 1999, Unr, a cellular cytoplasmic RNA-binding protein with five cold-shock domains, is required for internal initiation of translation of human rhinovirus RNA, Genes Devel., 13, 437, 10.1101/gad.13.4.437 Hüttenhofer, 1994, Footprinting mRNA–ribosome complexes with chemical probes, EMBO J., 13, 3892, 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1994.tb06700.x Imataka, 1998, A newly identified N-terminal amino acid sequence of human eIF4G binds poly(A)-binding protein and functions in poly(A)-dependent translation, EMBO J., 17, 7480, 10.1093/emboj/17.24.7480 Ivanov, 1998, The Drosophila gene for antizyme requires ribosomal frameshifting for expression and contains an intronic gene for snRNP Sm D3 on the opposite strand, Mol. Cell. Biol., 18, 1553, 10.1128/MCB.18.3.1553 Jackson, 1995, Internal initiation of translation in eukaryotes: the picornavirus paradigm and beyond, RNA, 1, 985 Jacob, 1987, A single base change in the Shine–Dalgarno region of 16S rRNA of Escherichia coli affects translation of many proteins, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 84, 4757, 10.1073/pnas.84.14.4757 Janosi, 1998, Evidence for in vivo ribosome recycling, the fourth step in protein biosynthesis, EMBO J., 17, 1141, 10.1093/emboj/17.4.1141 Judware, 1992, Mechanism of action of a cellular inhibitor of the dsRNA-dependent protein kinase from 3T3-F442A cells, J. Biol. Chem., 267, 21685, 10.1016/S0021-9258(19)36666-9 Kaminski, 1998, The polypyrimidine tract binding protein (PTB) requirement for internal initiation of translation of cardiovirus RNAs is conditional rather than absolute, RNA, 4, 626, 10.1017/S1355838298971898 Kanaji, 1998, A common genetic polymorphism (46 C to T substitution) in the 5′ UTR of the coagulation factor XII gene is associated with low translation efficiency and decrease in plasma factor XII level, Blood, 91, 2010, 10.1182/blood.V91.6.2010 Kang, 1994, Effect of initiation factor eIF-5A depletion on protein synthesis and proliferation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, J. Biol. Chem., 269, 3934, 10.1016/S0021-9258(17)41723-6 Keener, 1996, Regulation of ribosome synthesis, 1417 Kiss-László, 1995, Splicing of cauliflower mosaic virus 35S RNA is essential for viral infectivity, EMBO J., 14, 3552, 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1995.tb07361.x Kozak, 1977, Nucleotide sequences of 5′-terminal ribosome-protected initiation regions from two reovirus messages, Nature, 269, 390, 10.1038/269390a0 Kozak, 1978, How do eucaryotic ribosomes select initiation regions in messenger RNA?, Cell, 15, 1109, 10.1016/0092-8674(78)90039-9 Kozak, 1979, Inability of circular mRNA to attach to eukaryotic ribosomes, Nature, 280, 82, 10.1038/280082a0 Kozak, 1980, Role of ATP in binding and migration of 40S ribosomal subunits, Cell, 22, 459, 10.1016/0092-8674(80)90356-6 Kozak, 1983, Translation of insulin-related polypeptides from messenger RNAs with tandemly reiterated copies of the ribosome binding site, Cell, 34, 971, 10.1016/0092-8674(83)90554-8 Kozak, 1986, Influences of mRNA secondary structure on initiation by eukarytoic ribosomes, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 83, 2850, 10.1073/pnas.83.9.2850 Kozak, 1986, Point mutations define a sequence flanking the AUG initiator codon that modulates translation by eukaryotic ribosomes, Cell, 44, 283, 10.1016/0092-8674(86)90762-2 Kozak, 1987, An analysis of 5′-noncoding sequences from 699 vertebrate messenger RNAs, Nucleic Acids Res., 15, 8125, 10.1093/nar/15.20.8125 Kozak, 1987, Effects of intercistronic length on the efficiency of reinitiation by eucaryotic ribosomes, Mol. Cell. Biol., 7, 3438, 10.1128/MCB.7.10.3438 Kozak, 1989, Circumstances and mechanisms of inhibition of translation by secondary structure in eucaryotic mRNAs, Mol. Cell. Biol., 9, 5134, 10.1128/MCB.9.11.5134 Kozak, 1989, Context effects and (inefficient) initiation at non-AUG codons in eucaryotic cell-free translation systems, Mol. Cell. Biol., 9, 5073, 10.1128/MCB.9.11.5073 Kozak, 1990, Downstream secondary structure facilitates recognition of initiator codons by eukaryotic ribosomes, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 87, 8301, 10.1073/pnas.87.21.8301 Kozak, 1991, An analysis of vertebrate mRNA sequences: intimations of translational control, J. Cell Biol., 115, 887, 10.1083/jcb.115.4.887 Kozak, 1991, Structural features in eukaryotic mRNAs that modulate the initiation of translation, J. Biol. Chem., 266, 19867, 10.1016/S0021-9258(18)54860-2 Kozak, 1992, Regulation of translation in eukaryotic systems, Ann. Rev. Cell Biol., 8, 197, 10.1146/annurev.cb.08.110192.001213 Kozak, 1992, A consideration of alternative models for the initiation of translation in eukaryotes, Crit. Rev. Biochem. Mol. Biol., 27, 385, 10.3109/10409239209082567 Kozak, 1994, Features in the 5′ non-coding sequences of rabbit α and β-globin mRNAs that affect translational efficiency, J. Mol. Biol., 235, 95, 10.1016/S0022-2836(05)80019-1 Kozak, 1995, Adherence to the first-AUG rule when a second AUG codon follows closely upon the first, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 92, 2662, 10.1073/pnas.92.7.2662 Kozak, 1996, Interpreting cDNA sequences: some insights from studies on translation, Mammalian Genome, 7, 563, 10.1007/s003359900171 Kozak, 1997, Recognition of AUG and alternative initiator codons is augmented by G in position +4 but is not generally affected by the nucleotides in positions +5 and +6, EMBO J., 16, 2482, 10.1093/emboj/16.9.2482 Kozak, 1998, Primer extension analysis of eukaryotic ribosome-mRNA complexes, Nucleic Acids Res., 26, 4853, 10.1093/nar/26.21.4853 Kozak, 1978, Migration of 40S ribosomal subunits on messenger RNA in the presence of edeine, J. Biol. Chem., 253, 6568, 10.1016/S0021-9258(19)46969-X Kuge, 1998, Cap ribose methylation of c-mos mRNA stimulates translation and oocyte maturation in Xenopus laevis, Nucleic Acids Res., 26, 3208, 10.1093/nar/26.13.3208 Kunst, 1997, The complete genome sequence of the gram-positive bacterium Bacillus subtilis, Nature, 390, 249, 10.1038/36786 La Teana, 1993, Translation of mRNAs with degenerate initiation triplet AUU displays high initiation factor 2 dependence and is subject to initiation factor 3 repression, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 90, 4161, 10.1073/pnas.90.9.4161 Laurino, 1999, The β subunit of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 binds mRNA through the lysine repeats and a region comprising the C2–C2 motif, Mol. Cell. Biol., 19, 173, 10.1128/MCB.19.1.173 Lawrence, 1997, PHAS/4E-BPs as regulators of mRNA translation and cell proliferation, TIBS, 22, 345 Le, 1997, A common RNA structural motif involved in the internal initiation of translation of cellular mRNAs, Nucleic Acids Res., 25, 362, 10.1093/nar/25.2.362 Lease, 1998, Riboregulation in Escherichia coli: DsrA RNA acts by RNA:RNA interactions at multiple loci, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 95, 12456, 10.1073/pnas.95.21.12456 Lee, 1995, Cloning of p57KIP2, a cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor with unique domain structure and tissue distribution, Genes Devel., 9, 639, 10.1101/gad.9.6.639 Lee, 1999, Universal conservation in translation initiation revealed by human and archaeal homologs of bacterial translation initiation factor IF2, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 96, 4342, 10.1073/pnas.96.8.4342 Lesage, 1992, Messenger RNA secondary structure and translational coupling in the E. coli operon encoding IF3 and ribosomal proteins L35 and L20, J. Mol. Biol., 228, 366, 10.1016/0022-2836(92)90827-7 Li, 1996, Important role of the amino acid attached to tRNA in formylation and in initiation of protein synthesis in Escherichia coli, J. Biol. Chem., 271, 1022, 10.1074/jbc.271.2.1022 Lingelbach, 1988, An extended RNA/RNA duplex structure within the coding region of mRNA does not block translational elongation, Nucleic Acids Res., 16, 3405, 10.1093/nar/16.8.3405 Liu, 1997, Thermally regulated translational control of FRQ mediates aspects of temperature responses in the Neurospora circadian clock, Cell, 89, 477, 10.1016/S0092-8674(00)80228-7 Liu, 1997, The retinoblastoma interacting zinc finger gene RIZ produces a PR domain-lacking product through an internal promoter, J. Biol. Chem., 272, 2984, 10.1074/jbc.272.5.2984 Liu, 1999, Mutation of the CDKN2A 5′ UTR creates an aberrant initiation codon and predisposes to melanoma, Nature Genet., 21, 128, 10.1038/5082 Lo, 1998, RNA polymerase I-promoted HIS4 expression yields uncapped, polyadenylated mRNA that is unstable and inefficiently translated in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Mol. Cell. Biol., 18, 665, 10.1128/MCB.18.2.665 Low, 1996, Knowing when not to stop: selenocysteine incorporation in eukaryotes, TIBS, 21, 203 Luchin, 1999, In vitro study of two dominant inhibitory GTPase mutants of E. coli translation initiation factor IF2: direct evidence that GTP hydrolysis is necessary for factor recycling, J. Biol. Chem., 274, 6074, 10.1074/jbc.274.10.6074 Luukkonen, 1995, Efficiency of reinitiation of translation on HIV type 1 mRNAs is determined by the length of the upstream ORF and by intercistronic distance, J. Virol., 69, 4086, 10.1128/JVI.69.7.4086-4094.1995 Macleod, 1998, An alternative promoter in the mouse major histocompatibility complex class II I-Aβ gene: implications for the origin of CpG islands, Mol. Cell. Biol., 18, 4433, 10.1128/MCB.18.8.4433 Maiti, 1997, Characterization of translation initiation factor 5 (eIF5) from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Functional homology with mammalian eIF5 and the effect of depletion of eIF5 on protein synthesis in vivo and in vitro, J. Biol. Chem., 272, 18333, 10.1074/jbc.272.29.18333 Maitra, 1982, Initiation factors in protein biosynthesis, Ann. Rev. Biochem., 51, 869, 10.1146/annurev.bi.51.070182.004253 Malmgren, 1996, An antisense/target-RNA duplex or a strong intramolecular RNA structure 5′ of a translation initiation signal blocks ribosome binding: the case of plasmid R1, RNA, 2, 1022 Mandal, 1996, Role of the three consecutive G:C base pairs conserved in the anticodon stem of initiator tRNAs in initiation of protein synthesis in Escherichia coli, RNA, 2, 473 Maquat, 1995, When cells stop making sense: effects of nonsense codons on RNA metabolism in vertebrate cells, RNA, 1, 453 Marcotrigiano, 1997, Cocrystal structure of the messenger RNA 5′ cap-binding protein (eIF4E) bound to 7-methyl-GDP, Cell, 89, 951, 10.1016/S0092-8674(00)80280-9 Mathews, 1991, Adenovirus virus-associated (VA) RNA and translation control, J. Virol., 65, 5657, 10.1128/JVI.65.11.5657-5662.1991 McCarthy, 1998, Posttranscriptional control of gene expression in yeast, Microbiol. Molec. Biol. Rev., 62, 1492, 10.1128/MMBR.62.4.1492-1553.1998 McCutcheon, 1999, Location of translational initiation factor IF3 on the small ribosomal subunit, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 96, 4301, 10.1073/pnas.96.8.4301 Meerovitch, 1993, La autoantigen enhances and corrects aberrant translation of poliovirus RNA in reticulocyte lysate, J. Virol., 67, 3798, 10.1128/JVI.67.7.3798-3807.1993 Merrick, 1992, Mechanism and regulation of eukayotic protein synthesis, Microbiol. Rev., 56, 291, 10.1128/MR.56.2.291-315.1992 Mize, 1998, The inhibitory upstream ORF from mammalian S-adenosylmethionine decarboxylase mRNA has a strict sequence specificity in critical positions, J. Biol. Chem., 273, 32500, 10.1074/jbc.273.49.32500 Montine, 1989, Serum growth factors cause rapid stimulation of protein synthesis and dephosphorylation of eIF-2 in serum deprived Ehrlich cells, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 1014, 282, 10.1016/0167-4889(89)90224-3 Morfeldt, 1995, Activation of alpha-toxin translation in Staphylococcus aureus by the trans-encoded antisense RNA, RNAIII, EMBO J., 14, 4569, 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1995.tb00136.x Morita, 1999, Translational induction of heat shock transcription factor σ32: evidence for a built-in RNA thermosensor, Genes Devel., 13, 655, 10.1101/gad.13.6.655 Morlé, 1985, α-Thalassaemia associated with the deletion of two nucleotides at position −2 and −3 preceding the AUG codon, EMBO J., 4, 1245, 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1985.tb03767.x Moustakas, 1993, Effects of the open reading frames in the Rous sarcoma virus leader RNA on translation, J. Virol., 67, 4350, 10.1128/JVI.67.7.4350-4357.1993 Muckenthaler, 1998, IRP-1 binding to ferritin mRNA prevents the recruitment of the small ribosomal subunit by the cap-binding complex eIF4F, Molec. Cell, 2, 383, 10.1016/S1097-2765(00)80282-8 Nielsen, 1995, Growth-dependent translation of IGF-II mRNA by a rapamycin-sensitive pathway, Nature, 377, 358, 10.1038/377358a0 Novoa, 1999, Cleavage of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4G by exogenously added hybrid proteins containing poliovirus 2Apro in HeLa cells: effects on gene expression, Mol. Cell. Biol., 19, 2445, 10.1128/MCB.19.4.2445 Pachter, 1987, Autoregulation of tubulin expression is achieved through specific degradation of polysomal tubulin mRNAs, Cell, 51, 283, 10.1016/0092-8674(87)90155-3 Pain, 1996, Initiation of protein synthesis in eukaryotic cells, Eur. J. Biochem., 236, 747, 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1996.00747.x Paraskeva, 1999, Ribosomal pausing and scanning arrest as mechanisms of translational regulation from cap-distal iron-responsive elements, Mol. Cell. Biol., 19, 807, 10.1128/MCB.19.1.807 Pardigol, 1998, HCC-2, a human chemokine: gene structure, expression pattern, and biological activity, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 95, 6308, 10.1073/pnas.95.11.6308 Pause, 1992, Mutational analysis of a DEAD box RNA helicase: the mammalian translation initiation factor eIF-4A, EMBO J., 11, 2643, 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1992.tb05330.x Peabody, 1986, Effect of upstream reading frames on translation efficiency in simian virus 40 recombinants, Mol. Cell. Biol., 6, 2704, 10.1128/MCB.6.7.2704 Pestova, 1996, Canonical eukaryotic initiation factors determine initiation of translation by internal ribosomal entry, Mol. Cell. Biol., 16, 6859, 10.1128/MCB.16.12.6859 Pestova, 1998, Eukaryotic ribosomes require initiation factors 1 and 1A to locate initiation codons, Nature, 394, 854, 10.1038/29703 Phelps, 1998, Coupled transcriptional and translational control of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p18INK4c expression during myogenesis, Mol. Cell. Biol., 18, 2334, 10.1128/MCB.18.4.2334 Philippe, 1995, Hepatocyte-nuclear factor 3β gene transcripts generate protein isoforms with different transactivation properties on the glucagon gene, Molec. Endocrinol., 9, 368, 10.1210/me.9.3.368 Philippe, 1993, Ribosomal protein S15 from Escherichia coli modulates its own translation by trapping the ribosome on the mRNA initiation loading site, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 90, 4394, 10.1073/pnas.90.10.4394 Poot, 1997, RNA folding kinetics regulates translation of phage MS2 maturation gene, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 94, 10110, 10.1073/pnas.94.19.10110 Porse, 1999, The antibiotic micrococcin acts on protein L11 at the ribosomal GTPase centre, J. Mol. Biol., 287, 33, 10.1006/jmbi.1999.2600 Preiss, 1998, Dual function of the messenger RNA cap structure in poly(A)-tail-promoted translation in yeast, Nature, 392, 516, 10.1038/33192 Priano, 1997, Translational activation in coliphage Qβ: on a polycistronic messenger RNA, repression of one gene can activate translation of another, J. Mol. Biol., 271, 299, 10.1006/jmbi.1997.1194 Price, 1994, The guanine nucleotide-exchange factor, eIF-2B, Biochimie, 76, 748, 10.1016/0300-9084(94)90079-5 Pyronnet, 1999, Human eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4G (eIF4G) recruits Mnk1 to phosphorylate eIF4E, EMBO J., 18, 270, 10.1093/emboj/18.1.270 Reiss, 1998, Mutations in a polycistronic nuclear gene associated with molybdenum cofactor deficiency, Nature Genet., 20, 51, 10.1038/1706 Resch, 1996, Downstream box anti-downstream box interactions are dispensable for translation initiation of leaderless mRNAs, EMBO J., 15, 4740, 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1996.tb00851.x Rettberg, 1999, A three-way junction and constituent stem-loops as the stimulator for programmed −1 frameshifting in bacterial insertion sequence IS911, J. Mol. Biol., 286, 1365, 10.1006/jmbi.1999.2546 Reuter, 1998, APM-1 a novel human gene identified by aberrant co-transcription with papillomavirus oncogenes in a cervical carcinoma cell line encodes a BTB/POZ zinc finger protein with growth inhibitory activity, EMBO J., 17, 215, 10.1093/emboj/17.1.215 Ringquist, 1992, Translation initiation in Escherichia coli: sequences within the ribosome-binding site, Molec. Microbiol., 6, 1219, 10.1111/j.1365-2958.1992.tb01561.x Rogers, 1999, Biochemical and kinetic characterization of the RNA helicase activity of eukaryotic initiation factor 4A, J. Biol. Chem., 274, 12236, 10.1074/jbc.274.18.12236 Sacerdot, 1998, The Escherichia coli ThrRS gene contains a split ribosomal binding site interrupted by a hairpin structure that is essential for autoregulation, Molec. Microbiol., 29, 1077, 10.1046/j.1365-2958.1998.00995.x Sachs, 1997, Starting at the beginning, middle, and end: translation initiation in eukaryotes, Cell, 89, 831, 10.1016/S0092-8674(00)80268-8 Saito, 1994, Post-transcriptional regulation of the str operon in Escherichia coli: ribosomal protein S7 inhibits coupled translation of S7 but not its independent translation, J. Mol. Biol., 235, 111, 10.1016/S0022-2836(05)80020-8 Salavati, 1995, Competition between ribosome and SecA binding promotes E. coli secA translational regulation, RNA, 1, 745 Salzberg, 1996, gutfeeling, a Drosophila gene encoding an antizyme-like protein, is required for late differentiation of neurons and muscles, Genetics, 144, 183, 10.1093/genetics/144.1.183 Schärer-Hernández, 1998, Nonlinear ribosome migration on cauliflower mosaic virus 35S RNA in transgenic tobacco plants, Virology, 242, 403, 10.1006/viro.1998.9038 Schauder, 1989, The role of bases upstream of the Shine–Dalgarno region and in the coding sequence in the control of gene expression in E. coli: translation and stability of mRNAs in vivo, Gene, 78, 59, 10.1016/0378-1119(89)90314-4 Schmitt, 1998, Crystal structure of methionyl-tRNAmetf transformylase complexed with the initiator formyl-methionyl-tRNAmetf, EMBO J., 17, 6819, 10.1093/emboj/17.23.6819 Schneider, 1985, Adenovirus VA-I RNA prevents phosphorylation of the eukaryotic initiation factor 2 α subunit subsequent to infection, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 82, 4321, 10.1073/pnas.82.13.4321 Schweizer, 1986, The pentafunctional FAS1 gene of yeast: its nucleotide sequence and order of the catalytic domains, Mol. Gen. Genet., 203, 479, 10.1007/BF00422073 Senapathy, 1995, Introns and the origin of protein-coding genes, Science, 268, 1366, 10.1126/science.7761858 Sette, 1997, The structure of the translational initiation factor IF1 from E. coli contains an oligomer-binding motif, EMBO J., 16, 1436, 10.1093/emboj/16.6.1436 Severini, 1991, Ribosome-independent GTPase activity of translation initiation factor IF2 and of its G-domain, J. Biol. Chem., 266, 22800, 10.1016/S0021-9258(18)54424-0 Sharp, 1998, The vaccinia virus E3L gene product interacts with both the regulatory and the substrate binding regions of PKR: implications for PKR autoregulation, Virology, 250, 302, 10.1006/viro.1998.9365 Shatkin, 1976, Capping of eukaryotic mRNAs, Cell, 9, 645, 10.1016/0092-8674(76)90128-8 Si, 1999, The Saccharomyces cerevisiae homologue of mammalian translation factor 6 does not function as a translation initiation factor, Mol. Cell. Biol., 19, 1416, 10.1128/MCB.19.2.1416 Sizova, 1998, Specific interaction of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 3 with the 5′ non-translated regions of hepatitis C virus and classical swine fever virus RNAs, J. Virol., 72, 4775, 10.1128/JVI.72.6.4775-4782.1998 Slusher, 1991, mRNA leader length and initiation codon context determine alternative AUG selection for the yeast gene MOD5, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 88, 9789, 10.1073/pnas.88.21.9789 Somogyi, 1993, Ribosomal pausing during translation of an RNA pseudoknot, Mol. Cell. Biol., 13, 6931, 10.1128/MCB.13.11.6931 Sorensen, 1989, Codon usage determines translation rate in Escherichia coli, J. Mol. Biol., 207, 365, 10.1016/0022-2836(89)90260-X Spedding, 1993, Allosteric mechanism for translational repression in the Escherichia coli α operon, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 90, 4399, 10.1073/pnas.90.10.4399 Spotts, 1997, Identification of downstream-initiated c-Myc proteins which are dominant-negative inhibitors of transactivation by full-length c-Myc proteins, Mol. Cell. Biol., 17, 1459, 10.1128/MCB.17.3.1459 Sprengart, 1996, The downstream box: an efficient and independent translation initiation signal in Escherichia coli, EMBO J., 15, 665, 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1996.tb00399.x Srivastava, 1998, Phosphorylation of eIF2 mediates apoptosis in response to activation of the double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase, J. Biol. Chem., 273, 2416, 10.1074/jbc.273.4.2416 Steitz, 1975, How ribosomes select initiator regions in mRNA: base pair formation between the 3′ terminus of 16S rRNA and the mRNA during initiation of protein synthesis in Escherichia coli, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 72, 4734, 10.1073/pnas.72.12.4734 Sugiura, 1998, Evolution and mechanism of translation in chloroplasts, Annu. Rev. Genet., 32, 437, 10.1146/annurev.genet.32.1.437 Sun, 1995, Calspermin gene transcription is regulated by two cyclic AMP response elements contained in an alternative promoter in the calmodulin kinase IV gene, Mol. Cell. Biol., 15, 561, 10.1128/MCB.15.1.561 Sundari, 1976, Interaction of bacterial initiation factor 2 with initiator tRNA, J. Biol. Chem., 251, 3338, 10.1016/S0021-9258(17)33442-7 Sussman, 1996, Escherichia coli translation initiation factor 3 discriminates the initiation codon in vivo, Molec. Microbiol., 21, 347, 10.1046/j.1365-2958.1996.6371354.x Tan, 1998, Double-stranded RNA-independent dimerization of interferon-induced protein kinase PKR and inhibition of dimerization by the cellular P58IPK inhibitor, Mol. Cell. Biol., 18, 2431, 10.1128/MCB.18.5.2431 Tarun, 1995, A common function for mRNA 5′ and 3′ ends in translation initiation in yeast, Genes Devel., 9, 2997, 10.1101/gad.9.23.2997 Tedin, 1997, Requirements for ribosomal protein S1 for translation initiation of mRNAs with and without a 5′ leader sequence, Molec. Microbiol., 25, 189, 10.1046/j.1365-2958.1997.4421810.x Thisted, 1995, Mechanism of post-segregational killing: secondary structure analysis of the entire Hok mRNA from plasmid R1 suggests a fold-back structure that prevents translation and antisense RNA binding, J. Mol. Biol., 247, 859, 10.1006/jmbi.1995.0186 Uchiumi, 1997, Binding of mammalian ribosomal protein complex PO. P1. P2 and protein L12 to the GTPase-associated domain of 28S rRNA and effect on the accessibility to anti-28S RNA autoantibody, J. Biol. Chem., 272, 3302, 10.1074/jbc.272.6.3302 Unkles, 1997, The Aspergillus nidulans cnxABC locus is a single gene encoding two catalytic domains required for synthesis of precursor Z, an intermediate in molybdenum cofactor biosynthesis, J. Biol. Chem., 272, 28381, 10.1074/jbc.272.45.28381 Van Etten, 1998, An AUG initiation codon, not codon–anticodon complementarity, is required for the translation of unleadered mRNA in Escherichia coli, Molec. Microbiol., 27, 987, 10.1046/j.1365-2958.1998.00744.x van Himbergen, 1993, Translational control by a long range RNA–RNA interaction, a base-pair substitution analysis, Nucleic Acids Res., 21, 1713, 10.1093/nar/21.8.1713 Varshney, 1991, Mutants of initiator tRNA that function both as initiators and elongators, J. Biol. Chem., 266, 18018, 10.1016/S0021-9258(18)55231-5 Veidt, 1992, Synthesis of full-length transcripts of beet western yellows virus RNA: messenger properties and biological activity in protoplasts, Virology, 186, 192, 10.1016/0042-6822(92)90073-X Vilela, 1998, The yeast transcription factor genes YAP1 and YAP2 are subject to differential control at the levels of both translation and mRNA stability, Nucleic Acids Res., 26, 1150, 10.1093/nar/26.5.1150 Villa-Komaroff, 1975, Complete translation of poliovirus RNA in a eukaryotic cell-free system, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 72, 4157, 10.1073/pnas.72.10.4157 Wang, 1998, The evolutionarily conserved eukaryotic arginine attenuator peptide regulates the movement of ribosomes that have translated it, Mol. Cell. Biol., 18, 7528, 10.1128/MCB.18.12.7528 Weiss, 1988, Reading frame switch caused by base-pair formation between the 3′ end of 16S rRNA and the mRNA during elongation of protein synthesis in Escherichia coli, EMBO J., 7, 1503, 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1988.tb02969.x Wells, 1998, HSP101 functions as a specific translational regulatory protein whose activity is regulated by nutrient status, Genes Devel., 12, 3236, 10.1101/gad.12.20.3236 Weyens, 1988, On the role of the Shine–Dalgarno sequence in determining the efficiency of translation initiation at a weak start codon in the car operon of Escherichia coli K12, J. Mol. Biol., 204, 1045, 10.1016/0022-2836(88)90061-7 Wiestner, 1998, An activating splice donor mutation in the thrombopoietin gene causes hereditary thrombocythaemia, Nature Genet., 18, 49, 10.1038/ng0198-49 Wimmer, 1997, The glyoxysomal and plastid molecular chaperones (70 kDa heat shock protein) of watermelon cotyledons are encoded by a single gene, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 94, 13624, 10.1073/pnas.94.25.13624 Wu, 1996, Ribosome–initiator tRNA complex as an intermediate in translation initiation in Escherichia coli revealed by use of mutant initiator tRNAs and specialized ribosomes, EMBO J., 15, 4734, 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1996.tb00850.x Wu, 1997, Effect of the amino acid attached to Escherichia coli initiator tRNA on its affinity for the initiation factor IF2 and on the IF2 dependence of its binding to the ribosome, J. Biol. Chem., 272, 1891, 10.1074/jbc.272.3.1891 Xie, 1991, Expression of a mitogen-responsive gene encoding prostaglandin synthase is regulated by mRNA splicing, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 88, 2692, 10.1073/pnas.88.7.2692 Yang, 1997, In vitro mutational and inhibitory analysis of the cis-acting translational elements within the 5′ UTR of coxsackievirus B3: potential targets for antiviral action of antisense oligomers, Virology, 228, 63, 10.1006/viro.1996.8366 Yoon, 1992, The sui1 suppressor locus in Saccharomyces cerevisiae encodes a translation factor that functions during tRNAmeti recognition of the start codon, Mol. Cell. Biol., 12, 248, 10.1128/MCB.12.1.248 Yue, 1997, Double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase (PKR) is regulated by reovirus structural proteins, Virology, 234, 364, 10.1006/viro.1997.8664 Yueh, 1996, Selective translation initiation by ribosome jumping in adenovirus-infected and heat-shocked cells, Genes Devel., 10, 1557, 10.1101/gad.10.12.1557 Zengel, 1994, Diverse mechanisms for regulating ribosomal protein synthesis in Escherichia coli, Progr. Nucleic Acid Res. Mol. Biol., 47, 331, 10.1016/S0079-6603(08)60256-1 Zhang, 1997, Polysome-associated mRNAs are substrates for the nonsense-mediated mRNA decay pathway in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, RNA, 3, 234 Zhou, 1990, Synthesis of functional mRNA in mammalian cells by bacteriophage T3 RNA polymerase, Mol. Cell. Biol., 10, 4529, 10.1128/MCB.10.9.4529 Zhu, 1998, Ribosome-binding domain of eIF-2 kinase GCN2 facilitates translation control, J. Biol. Chem., 273, 1808, 10.1074/jbc.273.3.1808 Zorlo, 1994, Operons as a common form of chromosomal organization in C. elegans, Nature, 372, 270, 10.1038/372270a0